Human Development Unit 1

What is human development?

Refers to the physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development throughout the lifespan

What is physical development?

Refers to the changes and growth in the body and brain (including development of motor skills, sensory capabilities, and overall physical health)

What is cognitive development?

Refers to the changes and growth in an individual’s thinking, problem-solving, decision-making abilities, and intellectual skills

What is psychosocial development?

Refers to the growth and change that happens both psychologically and socially (an individual's personality, social skills, and interpersonal behaviors evolve over time)

What is continuous development?

Views development as a cumulative process, gradually improving and existing skills

What is discontinuous development?

Believe that development takes place in unique stages and that it occurs at specific times or ages

What is meant by one course of development?

Assumes that everyone follows the same general pattern of development (perspective emphasizes universal milestones that are common across cultures)

What is meant by many courses of development?

Acknowledge that individual and cultural differences shape development (factors like family structure, education, and social norms create unique developmental trajectories)

Nature

Refers to the genetic and biological influences on development (emphasizes the traits and characteristics we inherit from our parents)

Nurture

Highlights the role of environmental factors like family, education, culture, and experiences (suggests that our surroundings and interactions significantly shape who we become)

Heritability estimates

Measure the extent to which genetic differences among individuals account for variations in a specific trait within a population

Reaction range

Suggests that our genes establish a spectrum or range of potential outcomes for traits, behaviors, or abilities

Gene-environment correlation

Highlights how genes and environments influence each other

Breakdown of the lifespan

1) Prenatal Development

2) Infancy and Toddlerhood

3) Early Childhood

4) Middle Childhood

5) Adolescence

6) Early Adulthood

7) Middle Adulthood

8) Late Adulthood

Paul Baltes

German psychologist that studied lifespan development and aging and developed an approach to studying development called the lifespan perspective

What are the key principles of Baltes” lifespan perspective?

1) Development occurs across one’s entire life (lifelong)

2) Development involves the dynamic interaction of factors like physical, emotional, and psychosocial development (multidimensional )

3) Development results in gains and loses throughout life (multidirectional)

4) Development has characteristics that are malleable or changeable (plastic)

5) Development is influenced by socio-cultural influences (contextual)

6) Development is multidisciplinary

What are the 3 types of influences that Baltes identified that affect development throughout life

Normative age-graded influences, normative history-graded influences, and nonnormative influences

Normative age-graded influences

These are common experiences or changes that happen to most people at a certain age (like starting school or retiring)

Normative history-graded influences

These are events that affect a whole generation (like an economic recession or technological advances)

Nonnormative influences

These are unique or unusual events that happen to an individual (like winning a lottery or experiencing a serious illness)

Cohort

A group of people who are born at roughly the same time period in a particular society (share histories and contexts for living)

Culture

Refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and traditions that characterize a group of people and are passed down from one generation to the next

Ethnocentrism

The belief that one’s own culture is the best (a normal by-product of growing up in a culture)

Cultural relativity

An appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture

Descriptive Research

Used to describe behaviors or attributes without testing specific relationships between variables; can use methods like observation, case studies, surveys, and content analysis (ex: how much time do parents spend with children? or when is marital satisfaction greatest?)

Correlational Research

Tests whether a relationship exists between two or more variables, helping to understand how they might be connected

Experimental Research

Goes further by randomly assigning participants to different conditions and testing hypotheses to understand cause-and-effect relationships (asking why)

Evaluation Research

Assesses the effectiveness of policies or programs, such as studying whether safety programs in schools lead to proper use of bike helmets

Observational studies

Also called naturalistic observation, involve watching and recording the actions of participants; may take place in the natural setting or behind a one-way glass

Strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observation

Strengths: this method allows research to see how people actually behave, rather than relying on what they say they do (self-reports are not always accurate)

Weaknesses: one major limitation is that observation alone cannot establish cause-an-effect relationships; Hawthorne effect

Hawthorne effect

People often change their behavior when they known they are being watched

Case studies

Involve an in-depth examinations of a single case or situation; researchers might use observation, interviews, testing, or other methods to gather as much information as possible about a single person or event

Strengths and weaknesses of case studies

Strengths: they can provide detailed and rich information about a particular situation, especially when little is known about the topic

Weaknesses: the findings from case studies cannot be generalized to larger populations because the cases are not randomly selected and there is no control group for comparison

Surveys

Widely used to gather data from large groups of people

Strengths and weaknesses of surveys

Strengths: they allow researchers to collect information from a large number of people relatively quicker and can cover a wide range of topics

Weaknesses: Often only provide only surface-level information and may not capture the complexity of human behavior

Content analysis

Involves looking at media such as old texts, pictures, commercials, lyrics, or other materials to explore patterns or themes in culture (looking at primary sources)

Secondary content analysis (archival research)

Involves analyzing information that has already been collected or examining documents or media to uncover attitudes, practices, or preferences

What are the strengths and weaknesses of content analysis?

Strengths: it is less time-consuming and expensive since it uses existing materials rather than requiring new data collection

Weaknesses: the researcher cannot always know how accurately the media reflects the population’s actual behaviors or attitudes; the researcher is also limited to the questions and data collected in the original study

Validity

Refers to the accuracy (does the test measure what it should?)

Reliability

Refers to the consistency in responses to tests and other measures (does it give reliable results if administered again and again)

Correlational research

A type of non-experimental research method used to examine the relationship between two or more variables to determine whether they are associated with one another

Experiments

Designed to test hypotheses which are specific statements about the relationships between variables

Cross-sectional research

A type of observational study that involves analyzing data from a population, or a representative subset, at a specific point in time; compares different groups of people who vary in age, demographic factors, or other characteristics at a single moment

Limitations of cross-sectional research

It only provides information about age differences not about how individuals change over time; another issue is cohort effects and data being limited to one point in time

Longitudinal research

Involves studying the same person or group of people over an extended period of time

Challenges in Longitudinal Research

Participate attrition (participants fail to complete all parts of a study); selective attrition results

Sequential Research

Combine elements of both longitudinal and cross-sectional studies; follow participants over time but they also include participants of different ages

What is a theory?

A well-established, systematic approach to understanding behavior based on observable events and the scientific method; broad explanations and predictions about phenomena of interest that help organize lots of different observable events, make sense of them, make predictions about them, and connect them to some more comprehensive principles

What is a hypothesis?

A testable prediction derived logically from a theory, often framed as an if-then statement

Who are considered the three “early thinkers” or direct ancestors of the major theoretical traditions in developmental psychology today?

John Locke, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Charles Darwin

Who was John Locke?

A British empiricist who believed that the mind of a newborn is a “blank slate” on which knowledge is written through experience and learning

Who was Jean-Jacques Rousseau?

A Swiss philosopher that proposed that development occurs in stages according to innate processes; a progression through 3 stages infans (infancy), puer (childhood), and adolescence

Who was Charles Darwin?

The British biologist known for his theory of evolution that inspired the idea that development might follow an evolutionary path with many human behaviors rooted in successful adaptions from the past

Who was G. Stanley Hall?

He was influenced by Darwin’s theories and believed that children’s development mirrors the evolutionary history of the species; focused on childhood development, adolescence, and evolutionary the theory

Who was James Mark Baldwin?

Philosopher and psychologist that conducted quantitative and experimental research on infant development; influenced Piaget and Kohlberg

Who was John B. Watson?

Founded the field of behaviorism, emphasizing the role of nurture and environment in human development; conducted the Little Albert experiment that conditioned a child to fear a white rat

Sigmund Freud

Created the theory of psychosexual development that was based on his psychoanalytic approach to human personality; proposed that children progress through a series of stages where sexual energy focuses in different parts of the body

Arnold Gesell

A student of G. Stanley Hall, he conducted the first large-scale detailed study of children’s behavior, leading to the development of norms for early behaviors like sitting, crawling, and walking; research supported the idea that human development is driven by biological maturation with the environment playing only a minor role in timing of skill emergence

Jean Piaget

Developed a stage theory of cognitive development that transformed society’s understanding of children’s thinking and learning; introduced concepts like assimilation and accommodation to describe how children construct knowledge through interactions with their environment

Erik Erikson

Expanded on Freud’s idea to develop his theory of 8 stages of psychosocial development which span the entire lifespan

How is modern day developmental psychology different?

Now, development psychology focuses on understanding how and why individuals change throughout their lives, encompassing cognitive, social, intellectual, and personality development

What is the psychodynamic perspective?

Developed my Sigmund Freud that emphasizes the role of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships in shaping an individual’s behavior and personality throughout their lifespan; suggests that human development is deeply influences by internal conflicts, desires, and memories, many of which are rooted in early life experiences

What is Freud’s theory of personality?

The personality, or “self”, consists of three main components: the id, the ego, the superego

What is the Id?

The most primitive part of our personality and is present from birth; driven by biological instincts and operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification of our desires, such as hunger, thirst, and sex/aggression (an infant is entirely id)

What is the ego?

Begins to develop around the first three years of life and is the rational part of our personality, working to balance the demands of the id with the realities of the world; the ego operates on the reality principle, helping to satisfy the id’s desires in a realistic and socially acceptable way (the ego is the “self” that is presented to the world)

What is the superego?

Emerges around the age of five as a child internalizes the moral standards of caregivers and society; acts as our conscience, striving for perfection and judging our actions against these internalizes standards (enforces moral behavior)

What is neurosis?

Freud believed that imbalances in the system can lead to neurosis (a tendency to experience neagtive emotions), anxiety disorders, or unhealthy behaviors

What is the theory of psychosexual development?

Freud believed that personality develops during early childhood and that our experiences during these formative years significantly shape our behavior and personality as adults

What are the psychosexual stages?

Oral (0-1 years, erogenous zone: mouth, major conflict: weaning off breast or bottle, fixation: smoking or overeating), Anal (1-3 years, erogenous zone: anus, major conflict: toilet training, fixation: neatness and messiness) , Phallic (3-6 years, erogenous zone: genitals, major conflict: Oedipus/Electra Complex, fixation: vanity and over-ambition), Latency (6-12 years, erogenous zone: none, major conflict: none, fixation: none), and Genital (12+ years, erogenous zone: genitals, major conflict: none, fixation: none)

What are defense mechanisms?

Psychological strategies unconsciously employed by individuals to protect themselves from anxiety, stress, and uncomfortable feelings

What are some examples of defense mechanisms?

Denial (not accepting the truth or lying to oneself), displacement (taking out frustrations on a safer target), projection (a person attributes their unacceptable thoughts onto others), rationalization (a cognitive distortion of “the facts” to make an event or an impulse less threatening), reaction formation (a person outwardly opposes something they inwardly desire but they find acceptable), regression (going back to a time when the world felt like a safer place), repression (push back painful thoughts out of consciousness), and sublimation (transforming unacceptable urges into a more socially acceptable behaviors)

Who was Erik Erikson?

The father of developmental psychology (1902-1994) and was a student of Freud and expanded on the theory of psychosexual development by emphasizing the importance of culture in parenting practice and motivations

Erikson’s psychosocial stages of development

Believed that we are aware of what motivates us throughout life and that the go has greater importance in guiding our actions than does the id; this theory is based on the epigenetic principle encompassing the notion that we develop through an unfolding of our personality in predetermined stages and that our environment and surrounding culture influence how we progress through these stages

What are the 8 stages of Erikson’s psychosocial development?

Trust vs Mistrust (hope), autonomy vs shame (will), initiative vs guilt (purpose), industry vs role confusion (fidelity), intimacy vs isolation (love), generativity vs stagnation (care), and integrity vs despair (wisdom)

What happens duringTrust vs mistrust (hope)

From birth to 12 months of age infants learn that adults can be trusted which occurs when adults meet a child’s basic needs for survival; if infants are raised without their needs met they can go up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world

What happens during Autonomy vs shame (will)?

As toddlers (1-3 years) begin to explore their world they learn that they can control their actions and act on their environment to get results; start to show clear preferences for certain elements of the environment and are working to establish independence; if denied opportunity to act of her environment the toddler may doubt their abilities which can lead to low self-esteem and shame

What happens during Initiative vs guilt (purpose)?

During the preschool years (3-6 years) they are capable of initiating activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play; during this stage, children will explore limits and make choices (initiative) which can create self-confidence and feel of purpose but being unsuccessful during this stage may develop feelings of guilt

What happens during Industry vs inferiority (competence)?

During the elementary school stage (7-12 years), children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up; they either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment or they feel inferior and inadequate and an inferiority complex may develop into adolescence and adulthood

What happens during Identity vs role confusion (fidelity)?

In adolescence (12-18 years), children start developing a sense of self, meaning they “try on” different selves to see which ones fit; adolescents that are successful in this stage have a strong sense of identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems; if adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion

What happens during Intimacy vs isolation (love)?

Early adulthood (20s through early 40s) is after a sense of self has been developed and now this person shares their life with others but if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others; adults that did not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation

What happens during Generativity vs stagnation (care)?

Middle adulthood (40s to mid 60s) comes with generativity (finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as volunteering, mentoring, and raising children, contributing to the next generation); those who do not master generativity may experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful way

What happens during Integrity vs despair (wisdom)?

Late adulthood (mid-60s to end of life) makes people reflect on their lives that either creates a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure

What are weaknesses of Erikson’s theory?

These stages of life can occur more than once and at different times of life and Erikson relies heavily on stages and assuming that the completion of one stage is a prerequisite for the next crisis of development; it also focuses on the social expectations found in only certain cultures

What is behaviorism?

Emerged in the 20th century, a theory of learning that centers on how our behavior is influence by the environment, specifically how we respond to events or stimuli; concerned with measurable and observable behaviors

Who was Ivan Pavlov?

A Russian physiologist that observed the case of behaviorism when feeding his dog with a ringing of a bell

What is classical conditioning?

The process by which individuals learn to associate a previously neutral stimulus with another stimulus, resulting in a learned response; this learning occurs throughout life and can influence behaviors, preferences, and emotional responses at various stages of development

What are the pieces of classical conditioning in a child developing a fear of dogs after being bitten?

Neutral stimulus (NS): the presence of the dog before the child was bitten

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): the dog bite, which naturally causes pain and fear

Unconditioned Response (UCR): the child’s fear and pain response to being bitten

Conditioned stimulus (CS): the sight of the dog after conditioning, now associated with the fear response

Conditioned Response (CR): the child’s anxiety or fear when encountering dogs, even without being bitten again

What is operant conditioning?

The process by which individuals learn behaviors through the consequences of their actions, such as rewards or punishments; helps explain how behaviors are acquired, maintained, or eliminated based on the outcomes they produce

The Law of Effect

Proposed by Edward Thornlike and used by B.F. Skinner, it states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated while behaviors followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated

Who was B.F Skinner?

A psychologist who saw that classical conditioning is limited to existing behaviors that are reflexively elicited and it does not account for new behaviors such as riding a bike; believed that behavior is motivated by the consequences we receive for the behavior

Social cognitive theory

a theory developed by Albert Bandura that states that learning occurs in a social context and can happen through observation, imitation, and modeling, without the need for direct reinforcement

What are the four key processes that Bandura identified in observational learning?

Attention (you must focus on the behavior you want to learn), retention (you need to remember what you observed), initiation (you must be able to replicate the behavior), and motivation (you need to want to adopt the behavior)

What famous experiment did Albert Bandura conduct to showcase observational learning?

The Bobo Doll Experiment

Who was Jean Piaget?

A cognitive theorist (1896-1980) that explored children’s ability to think and reason by watching his own children’s development; believed that we are always striving to maintain cognitive equilibrium (keeping balance between what we see and what we know)

Why is cognitive equilibrium harder to maintain for children?

Children constantly encounter new situations, words, and objects

What are schemas?

When faced with something new, a child might try to fit it into an exisiting framework (schema) by matching it to something they already know; a child might call all animals with 4 legs “doggies” because thats a word they are familiar with (assimilation) but if the child learns a new word that more accurately describes the animal like “cat” the child will adjust their framework to accommodate this new information (accommodation)

What are the stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Sensorimotor, prepoerational, concrete operational, and formal operational

What goes on during the sensorimotor stage?

This stage lasts from birth to about 2 years old where children learn about the world through their senses and motor actions; at about 5 to 8 months, children develop object permanence and stranger anxiety

What is the preoperational stage?

This stage occurs around 2-7 years old and children use symbols to represent words, images, and ideas (why they engage in pretend play); children begin to use language but they struggle to understand adult logic or manipulate information mentally and children tend to exhibit egocentrism; logic is based off of personal experiences rather than conventional knowledge and there is no understanding of conservation;

What is the concrete operational stage?

This stage occurs from about 7-11 years old and children begin to think logically about real events; they also start to develop understanding of numbers and start using memory strategies as well as performing mathematical operations; children understand the concept of conservation and reversibility