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smooth muscles
control the digestive system and other organs,
skeletal muscle
Control the body in relation to the environment
Cardiac muscles
Control the heart
neuromuscular junction
a synapse between a motor neuron axon and a muscle fiber.
antagonistic muscles
opposing sets of muscles that are required to move a leg or arm back and forth
flexor
muscle brings your hand toward your shoulder
extensor
muscle straightens the arm
fast twitch fibers
muscle fibers that contract rapidly and forcefully but fatigue quickly
slow twitch fibers
muscle fibers that contract at a slow rate and have very good endurance
aerobic
use oxygen during movements
anaerobic
using reactions that do not require oxygen at the time but need oxygen for recovery
proprioceptor
a receptor that detects the position or movement of a part of the body—in these cases, a muscle.
stretch reflex
muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle
muscle spindle
a receptor parallel to the muscle that responds to a stretch.
Golgi tendon organs
Receptors sensitive to change in tension of the muscle and the rate of that change
Reflexes
consistent automatic responses to stimuli in- sensitive to reinforcements, punishments, and motivations
ballistic movement
motion that proceeds as a single organized unit that cannot be redirected once it begins
central pattern generators
neural mechanisms in the spinal cord that generate rhythmic patterns of motor output.
motor program
a fixed sequence of movements
primary motor cortex
the section of the frontal lobe responsible for voluntary movement
posterior parietal cortex
monitors the position of the body relative to the world
supplementary motor cortex
important for planning and organizing a rapid sequence of movements
premotor cortex
area of the frontal cortex, active during the planning of a movement
Prefrontal cortex
also active during a delay before a movement, stores sensory information relevant to a movement
antisaccade task
a voluntary eye movement away from the normal direction
mirror neurons
Neurons that are active both during preparation for a movement and while watching someone else perform the same or a similar movement
corticospinal tracts.
Paths from the cerebral cortex to the spinal cord
lateral corticospinal tract
a set of axons from the primary motor cortex, surrounding areas, and midbrain area that is primarily responsible for controlling the peripheral muscles
red nucleus
A large nucleus of the midbrain that receives inputs from the cerebellum and motor cortex and sends axons to motor neurons in the spinal cord.
medial corticospinal tract
set of axons from many parts of the cerebral cortex, midbrain, and medulla; responsible for control of bilateral muscles of the neck, shoulders, and trunk
Vestibular nucleus
a brain area that receives input from the vestibular system
cerebellar cortex
the cortex that covers the surface of the cerebellum
Purkinje cells
are flat (two- dimensional) cells in sequential planes, parallel to one another
parallel fibers
axons parallel to one another and perpendicular to the planes of the Purkinje cells.
nuclei of the cerebellum
clusters of neurons in the interior of the cerebellum that send axons to motor-controlling areas outside the cerebellum
basal ganglia
a set of subcortical structures that directs intentional movements
caudate nucleus
one of the major nuclei that make up the basal ganglia
Putamen
large subcortical structure, part of the basal ganglia
globus pallidus
component of the basal ganglia that connects to the thalamus which relays information to the motor areas and the prefrontal cortex
dorsal striatum
caudate nucleus and putamen. Receives input from the cerebral cortex and substantia nigra and sends its output to the globus pallidus, which then sends output to the thalamus and frontal cortex.
readiness potential
the increased motor cortex activity prior to the start of the movement
Parkinson's disease
a progressive disease that destroys brain cells and is identified by muscular tremors, slowing of movement, and partial facial paralysis
MPTP
chemical that the body converts to MPP+ which accumulates in and then destroys neurons that release dopamine - substance responsible for the symptoms of Parkinsons - in herbicides and pesticides and can damage cells of substantia nigra
L-Dopa
A drug for Parkinson's disease that contains the precursors to dopamine so that once it is in the brain, it will be converted to dopamine.
Stem cells
unspecialized cells that are able to renew themselves for long periods of time by cell division
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 30.
huntingtin