Understanding People and Behaviour exam

psychology

Stress (Lazarus and Folkman, 1984)

Process whereby an individual perceives and responds to events that he appraises as overwhelming or threatening to his wellbeing

Appraisal process

how individuals interpret and evaluate events, especially those that might be stressful or emotionally significant.

Primary appraisal

judgement about the degree of potential harm a stressor might entail

Secondary appraisal

if the stressor is interprets as a threat then judgement of the available coping options and there effectiveness occurs

Eustress

associated with positive feelings, optimal health and performance

distress

negative feelings

fight or flight response

occurs when a person experiences very strong emotions especially those associated with a perceived threat

fight or flight response systems

sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system

General adaptation syndrome

the body’s non specific physiological response to stress there are three stages

3 stages of general adaptation syndrome

alarm reaction

stage of resistance

stage of exhaustion

alarm reaction

the body’s immediate reaction upon facing a threatening situation or emergency. When alerted to a stressor your body alarms you with physiological reactions that provide you with the energy to manage the situation

stage of resistance

If exposure to a stressor is prolonged the initial shock wears off and the body has adapted to the stressor but your body remains alert and is prepared to respond

stage of exhaustion

if exposure to a stressor continues over a long period of time the body’s ability to resist becomes depleted as physical wear takes its toll on the body’s tissues and organs causing illness, disease and other permanent damage to the body

sympathetic nervous system

triggers arousal via the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. these hormones activates the fight or flight response to stress such as accelerated heart rate and respiration

hypothalamic-pituitary adrenal axis

works slower

the hypothalamus releases corticotrophin-releasing factor a hormone that causes the pituitary gland to release a adrenocorticotropic hormone activating the adrenal glans to secrete a number of hormones in the bloodstream

cortisol

commonly known as the stress hormone helps provide a boost of energy when encountered with a stressor but a sustained level will weaken the immune system

Stressor

the stimulus that causes stress

stressor examples

traumatic events, life changes, phobias, unpleasant things

Stress and illness

prolonged exposure to a stressor can cause psychophysical disorders, impact the immune system, heart disease, depression, and premature aging

coping styles

problem focused

emotion focused

problem focused

attempts to manage or alter the stressor involves identifying the problem, considering possible solutions, weighing the costs and benefits of the solutions and the selecting an alternative. for stressors perceived as controllable

Emotion focused

efforts to change or reduce negative emotions associated with stress. Involves avoiding, miminising, or distancing oneself from the problem, or positive comparisons with others or seeking something positive in a negative event. For stressors that we are powerless to change.

social support

thought of as the soothing impact of friends, family and acquaintances. it provides advice, guidance, encouragement, acceptance, emotional comfort and tangible assistance

Social identity theory

Self concept is linked to group membership it provides a sense of belonging and control that leads to greater wellbeing and individuals also internalise group norms as being right

Teams

Groups of individuals working collaboratively towards a common goal, often characterized by shared objectives, interaction, and interdependence.

Groups

Collections of individuals who interact and share a common sense of identity, which can vary in size and purpose.

Factors that lead to functional teams

clear goals, good coordination between members, good social relations, good leadership, member rewards, member accountability, members with appropriate skills and roles, support from wider group where relevant

Structural elements of a team

components such as roles, norms, and communication patterns that influence team dynamics and effectiveness.

Group norms

norms are rules and standards that are understood and accepted by members of a group and that guide and or constrain social behaviour

Origins of Group norms

emerge out of interaction with others and coordinate the actions of members towards the fulfilment of group goals and may not be state explicity

Social loafing

reduction in individual effort when working on a collective task compared to working alone

Social loafing causes

output equity, evaluation apprehension, matching to standard, diffusion of responsibility, dispensability of effort

Collective effort model (CEM)

individuals motivation and work is affected by identifiability, rewards, impact on outcomes, and communication

how to prevent social loafing

Implementing individual accountability, enhancing group cohesiveness, setting specific goals, and fostering a supportive environment.

Groupthink

A mode of thinking that persons engage in when concurrence seeking becomes so dominant in a cohesive ingroup that it tends to override realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action

Groupthink causes

high stress from external threat, excessive group cohesiveness, directive leader, isolation of group from dissenting views

How to prevent groupthink

• Leaders should avoid being too directive

• Assign the role of critical evaluator

• Devils advocate

• Welcome critiques from outside experts and associates

• Occasionally subdivide the group then reunite and air differences

• call a second chance meeting

Impact of norms on intergroup interactions

Norms influence behavior and expectations in group interactions, often shaping how groups perceive and engage with each other. They can promote cohesion but may also lead to stereotyping and conflict between different groups.Ethnocentric, competitive and silo

Realistic conflict theory Sherif

suggests that intergroup conflicts arise from competition for limited resources, leading to prejudice and discrimination between groups.

Common ingroup identity model

Move from intergroup context to a shared superordinate social identity to reduce conflict and prejudice between groups where primary identity is not threatened by superordinate grouping

Advantages of group membership

include increased support, shared resources, and a sense of belonging. Group members often experience enhanced motivation and productivity due to collective efforts and shared goals.

Disadvantages of not being in a group

can include feelings of isolation, lack of support, and increased vulnerability to stress and mental health issues.

Social facilitation

the enhancement of an individual’s performance when that person works in the presence of other people

Group cohesion

The integrity, solidarity, social integration, or unity of a group

Common knowledge effect

spend much time of their discussion time examining common knowledge rather than unshared information. Results in a bad outcome if something known by only one or two group members is very important

Prisoner’s dilemma

A common example in game theory illustrating how two individuals may not cooperate even if it's in their best interest. It showcases the conflict between individual self-interest and mutual benefit.

link between empathy and cooperation

suggests that higher levels of empathy can enhance cooperative behavior in social settings.

Cultural influence on cooperation

refers to how cultural norms and values shape cooperative behaviors and attitudes within groups, affecting how individuals collaborate and resolve conflicts.

Probable evolutionary advantage of attachment

suggests that forming strong emotional bonds can enhance survival by promoting care for offspring and fostering social connections.

Strange situation levels

measured through the observed behaviour of the infants reaction to a strange room, person and the absense of mother

Secure attachment

is a healthy emotional bond where children feel safe and supported by their caregiver, leading to positive social and emotional development. In the strange situation they explore freelly when caregiver is present using them as a secure base, and may become visibly upset when the caregiver departs, and when reunited they are easily soothed and resume exploring

secure attachment adult behaviours

enerally leads to adults who are confident, trusting, and capable of forming healthy, stable relationships. They are comfortable with intimacy, have high self-esteem, and seek out social support when needed. They also tend to have a positive outlook on life, manage stress effectively, and exhibit empathy toward others

secure attachment internal working model

reflects a child's positive belief in their own worth and the reliability of their caregivers, leading to confident exploration and a strong sense of trust in relationships

Resistant attachment

is characterized by anxiety and uncertainty, where children may cling to their caregiver but also resist comfort when reunited, reflecting ambivalence toward their caregiver's availability. also show high levels of stranger and separation anxiety

resistant attachment adult behaviours (preoccupied)

behaviors often include clinginess, neediness, jealousy, and a fear of abandonment. They crave intimacy but struggle with trust and may switch between intense emotional highs and lows. They might also exhibit difficulty setting boundaries, seek constant reassurance, and use guilt or manipulation to keep partners close. 

resistant attachment internal working model

a preoccupation with and a need for the attachment figure, but also with a tendency to resist their care

avoidant attachment

an infant will show minimal distress when separated from their caregiver and upon reunion, often ignoring or avoiding the caregiver, even when they return. They may seem indifferent to the stranger, continue playing as before, and may even turn away from the caregiver upon their return. 

avoidant attachment adult behaviours (Dismissing)

preference for independence, difficulty with emotional closeness, and a tendency to avoid conflict or emotionally demanding situations. They may also exhibit difficulty trusting others, a strong sense of self-sufficiency, and a tendency to suppress or deny their emotions

avoidant attachment internal working model

typically involve a negative view of others and a dismissive or self-reliant view of themselves

disorganised attachment

characterized by an infant's inconsistent and often contradictory responses to the caregiver's departure and return, suggesting a disruption of the attachment system

disorganised attachment adult behaviours (Fearful)

struggle with forming and maintaining secure relationships, exhibiting conflicting behaviors like seeking closeness and then pushing others away. They may experience difficulties with emotional regulation, trust, and self-esteem, which can manifest in various relationship dynamics

disorganised attachment internal working model

reflects a lack of a coherent, consistent strategy for interacting with and responding to a caregiver in times of stress

internal working model effects on sense of self and others

reflects internalised expectations about the self and others impacting how an individual views their own and others worth, relationships with others, and how they interact with others.

internal working model

mental frameworks or schemas that individuals develop based on their early experiences with caregivers, shaping their understanding of themselves, others, and relationships.

chain effect leading from secure attachment in childhood to positive romantic relationship in adulthood

, built through consistent and responsive caregiving, leads to positive self-perception, higher self-esteem, and ultimately, more fulfilling and stable romantic relationships in adulthood

factors linked to interpersonal attraction

situational factors: physical proximity, familiarity, circumstances of first meeting, physically comfortable circumstances, rewarding situations

Similarity: attitudes, balanced relationships

Physical attractiveness

Matching hypothesis

people tend to form relationships with those who are physically similar i.e. age, social class, education, values

Triangular theory of love Sternberg

a model proposing that love consists of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment, which combine to form different types of love.

Intimacy

caring, closeness, and emotional support

Passion

• physiological and emotional arousal

• can include physical attraction, emotional responses that promote physiological changes and sexual arousal

Commitment

• cognitive process and decision to commit to love another person

• willingness to work to keep that love over the course of your life

types of relationships and the triangular element

• Romantic love (Intimacy and passion)

• companionate love (commitment and intimacy)

• Fatuous Love (Commitment and Passion)

• Friendship/Liking Love (intimacy)

• infatuation (Passion)

• empty love (commitment)

• consummate love (Intimacy, Passion, and Commitment

four communication styles Gottman

criticism, contempt, defensiveness, and stonewalling

Criticism

Involves expressing negative judgments about a partner's character or behavior, often phrased as "you" statements. It's different from a complaint or feedback; it's an attack that can leave the recipient feeling hurt and invalidated

Contempt

expressing disrespect, mockery, and a sense of superiority towards a partner. It can manifest verbally through insults, name-calling, and sarcasm, or nonverbally through eye-rolling, sneering, and mimicking. Creates a sense of emotional distance.

Defensiveness

involves making excuses, denying responsibility, and cross-blaming. Defensive behaviors can include complaining, making excuses, denying problems, or crossing one's arms in a non-verbal defense. Occurs when feeling attacked

Stonewalling

when a partner withdraws from a conversation, refuses to engage, and becomes silent or physically disengaged. It can be a way of avoiding conflict or a way of expressing disapproval and a sense of disconnection

5 stages of grief

1. denial

2. anger

3. bargaining

4. depression

5. acceptance

Received social support

refers to the actual assistance provided by others, such as emotional support, financial help, or practical aid. This type of support is particularly helpful in situations where tangible help is needed, such as during a crisis, illness, or significant life change.

Perceived social support

the belief that support is available if needed. This perception can be just as important, if not more so, than the actual support received. It contributes to a sense of security and belonging, which can buffer against stress and improve mental health.

Biopsychosocial model of health

a holistic approach that considers biological, psychological, and social factors in health and illness.

changes that were instrumental in adopting the biopsychosocial model

include advancements in understanding mental health, the recognition of the interplay between biological and social factors, and a shift towards patient-centered care in healthcare.

Protection motivation theory of health

explains how people are motivated to protect themselves from health threats by adopting preventative behaviors. It emphasizes that people's actions are influenced by both their assessment of the threat (threat appraisal) and their perceived ability to cope with it (coping appraisal). 

Threat appraisal

• Perceived Susceptibility: The belief that one is likely to be affected by the threat.

• Perceived Severity: The belief that the threat is serious and can cause harm.

• Perceived Rewards of Maladaptive Behavior: The belief that engaging in the unhealthy behavior offers positive outcomes.

Coping appraisal

• Response Efficacy: The belief that the recommended action (e.g., vaccination, using seatbelts) will be effective in preventing the threat.

• Self-Efficacy: The belief in one's own ability to perform the recommended action.

• Response Costs: The perceived costs of adopting the recommended action (e.g., time, effort, financial burden).

Learned helplessness

a psychological condition in which individuals believe they cannot control or change their situation, leading to a passive acceptance of negative circumstances. It often results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable stressors.

Theory of planned behaviour

A psychological theory that links beliefs and behavior, suggesting that intention to engage in a behavior is influenced by attitudes towards the behavior, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control.

Cognitive dissonance

the mental discomfort experienced when holding two or more conflicting beliefs or values, often leading to an alteration in attitudes or behavior to reduce the inconsistency.

Cognitive dissonance causes

social pressure, addiction, and the effort-justification effect, where the effort put into something doesn't match the perceived outcome. 

Types of barriers to change

Individual, family, health system, and community, cultural and ethnic.

individual barriers to change

• Lack of knowledge is rarely an explanation

• short term rewards

• negative effects of compromising behaviours

• unrealistic optimism

• Gender- men less likely to engage in health promoting behaviour

Stages of transtheoretical model

1. Precontemplation

2. Contemplation

3. Preparation

4. Action

5. Maintenance

relapse does happen but is not considered a stage and people go back to the first stage

Precontemplation

People in this stage are not even considering changing their behaviour in the near
future. They may also be unaware that a problem exists.

Contemplation

At this stage, people are aware that a problem exists and are considering taking action soon but are not yet committed to that action.

Preparation

During this stage, people are preparing to make behavioural change in the next month or so and are making small changes already that will help them achieve their goal.

Action

This stage usually lasts approximately six months and is when people are actively working on behavioural change.

Maintenance

People in this stage have achieved their desired behaviour change and are working to maintain this

Motivational interviewing

a counseling method that helps individuals explore and resolve ambivalence about making a change by eliciting their internal motivation to change. It's a client-centered, empathetic, and short-term approach that acknowledges the challenges of making life changes. 

Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)

focuses on how thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are interconnected. It aims to help individuals identify and change unhelpful thought patterns and behaviors to improve mental health and well-being.

Why/how you can change subjective norms

Subjective norms refer to the perceived social pressures to engage or not engage in a behavior. Understanding and changing these norms can involve addressing social influences, increasing awareness of positive behaviors, and fostering supportive environments.