Neuro exam 1

Easier (hopefully) version

Behavioral neuroscience refers to:

The study of how the brain, nervous system, and biology control human and animal behavior

Evolution is best described as:

A change over time

What were Darwin's main insights about evolution?

1. Variation amongst species

2. Some characteristics are heritable,

3. More offspring are produced than critical resources, resulting in competition,

4. Heritable traits that contribute to reproduction will become more prevalent

What evidence did Darwin provide regarding evolution?

Fossil records, structural similarities among living species, and selective breeding

Natural selection refers to:

Heritable traits associated w/ high rates of survival and reproduction are passed down to future generations

Relative fitness is best described as:

Reproductive success

Human evolution is best described as:

Biological and behavioral process by which modern humans originated from apelike ancestors over roughly six to seven million years

The characteristics that make Homo sapiens unique compared to other species are:

Bipedalism, color vision, agile hands, and large brains

How have researchers studied the evolution of the brain across different species? 

By the number of cortical neurons

Mismatch hypothesis refers to:

The idea that traits adapted for ancestral environments may be unhelpful in modern environments

Some common mismatched diseases include:

Obesity and type two diabetes, cardiovascular disease, emphysema, and liver cirrhosis

Experimental design refers to:

When the IV is manipulated to see if it affects the DV

The experimental group receives:

Special treatment of the IV

What type of treatment does the control group receive from the IV?

None

Random assignment is best described as:

Participants are placed in the groups by chance

What are the pros and cons of a true experiment? 

The environment is controlled, which allows for cause and effect conclusions. However, it cannot be used to explore all research questions

Correlational research refers to:

When a correlation exist bc two variables are related

A quasi experiment is best described as:

Similar to experimental, but the IV is not randonly assigned

What are the pros and cons of correlational research? 

It allows for scientists to study variables in a natural environment, but causation ≠ correlation

The role of the IRB is to:

Approve research using human subjects

The role of the IACUC is to:

Approve research using animal testing

What are some of the neuroscience testing techniques used on humans?

CT, MRI, EEG, psychophysiological activity (bp, hr), memory, and reaction time

What research techniques are used on animals?

Behavioral measures, neuron recording, lesion methods, and staining

The pros and cons of animal research include:

Ability to study diseases, and drug development, however, some of the methods are unethical

What do neurons do?

Process information and transmit cells in the nervous system

Where do sensory (afferent) neurons send information?

Towards the CNS

Motor (efferent) neurons send info:

Away from the CNS

Glial cells are the:

Supporting cells of the nervous system

Interneurons are located:

Entirely within the CNS

The soma refers to:

The cell body that contains the nucleus

What is the function of dendrites?

To receive messages from other neurons

What does the axon carry?

Action potential from the cell body to terminal buttons

Terminal buttons are responsible for:

Releasing neurotransmitters

Nerves are best described as:

Bundles of neurons that transmit info

The cell membrane refers to:

The boundary between the inside and outside of the cell that is composed of a lipid bilayer

What is cytoplasm?

A semi liquid substance contained inside the cell

The nucleus contains:

Genetic material

What is the BBB and it's purpose?

It contains cells of blood vessel walls that are tightly packed together, and regulates the flow of substances b/w circulating blood and the extracellular fluid of the CNS

The purpose of mitochondria is to:

Break down nutrients and provide cell w/ energy

Microtubules refer to:

Protein filaments that span length of the axon

What do astrocytes do?

Maintain the BBB and provide nourishment to neurons

Microglia are known as:

The primary immune cells of the CNS, which aid in the inflammatory response to damage

What do oligidendrocytes do?

Myelinate neurons

What do Schwan cells do?

Help guide axonal regeneration and produce the myelin sheath

Resting membrane potential is best described as:

The electrical voltage difference across a cell's plasma membrane when the cell is at rest

What forces influence ion flow?

Diffusion and electrostatic pressure

Diffusion refers to:

The flow of ions down concentration gradient

Electrostatic pressure is best defined as:

The flow of ions towards oppositely charged areas

How does diffusion and EP influence K+ ions?

Diffusion causes the ions to exit the cell while EP causes them to enter it

How does diffusion and EP influence NA+ cells?

They cause the ions to want to enter the cell

The sodium potassium pump refers to:

Three NA+ ions are pumped out of the cell and two K+ ions are pumped in

An action potential refers to:

The communication within a neuron that causes a brief electrical signal

What happens during an action potential?

1. Threshold of excitation is reached, causing voltage gated NA+ channels to open

2. NA+ ions rush in, leading to rapid depolirization (-70 to +40 mV)

3. Voltage gated K+ channels open and then the ions rush out

4. Then NA+ channels close leading to refractory, and K+ channels close shortly after

5. Finally hyperpolarization occurs and the resting membrane potential is reestablished

The All-or-None Law refers to:

The stimulus strength does not influence the amplitude of an action potential

In the Rate Law, the stimulus strength is influenced by:

The frequency of action potentials

The strength of the stimulus is communicated by:

The strength of the frequency (strong vs weak)

What happens during exocytosis?

1. Vessels are stored near release zones

2. Voltage-activated calcium channels open

3. Calcium enters the terminal buttons, causing the fusion pore to open

4. Contents are emptied into the synaptic cleft

What are ionotropic receptors?

Ligand-gated ion channels that open directly to let ions flow into or out of a cell when a chemical messenger binds to them

Metabotropic receptors refer to:

Cell membrane proteins that use chemical signals to indirectly change cell activity over a longer period

What occurs during Exciatory Postsynaptic Potentials (EPSP)?

Membrane is depolarized (+) and neuron firing chances are increased

What do Inhibitory Postsynatic Potentials (IPSP) do?

Hyperpolarize the membrane (-) and decrease neuron firing chances

How are the responses of PSPs summed?

Spatial and temporal summation

Spatial summation refers to:

EPSPs/IPSPs are produced simultaneously on different parts of the membrane

What occurs during temporal summation?

EPSPs/IPSPs produced rapidly at the same synapse forms a greater signal

Reuptake refers to:

The rapid removal of neurotransmitters from the synapse by transporters on terminal buttons

Enzymatic degradtion is best described as:

The enzyme destroys molecules of the neurotransmitter

The Central Nervous System contains:

The brain and spinal cord

The Peripheral Nervous System contains:

The somatic and autonomic nervous system

Dorsal is best described as:

Towards the back

Ventral refers to:

Towards the stomach/front

Anterior/Rostral is best described as:

Towards the front/nose

What does Posterior/Caudal refer to?

Towards the “tail” (butt)

Medial is best described as:

Towards the middle

What does Lateral refer to?

Towards the sides

Superior is best described as:

Top of the head

What does Inferior refer to?

Bottom of the head (feet)

What is the CNS protected by?

The BBB, skull/vertebrae, three meninges, and cerebrospinal fluid

What does the Medulla/Myelencephalon do?

Contains tracks that carry signals b/w the brain and the rest of the body

The Recticular Formation is associated with:

Sleep, attention, movement, muscle tone, and cardiac, circulatory, and respiratory reflexes

The Metencephalon contains:

The cerebellum and pons

The Cerebellum is responsible for:

Movement, balance, and helps w/ motor learning

What does the pons do?

It is the communication b/w cerebral cortex and cerebellum

What are the primary functions of the spinal cord?

Distribute motor fibers, transmit somatosensory info to the brain, and reflexes

What are cranial nerves?

Nerves in the PNS projected directly from the brain

The Somatic nervous system contains:

Afferent and efferent neurons and interacts w/ external environment

What is the function of the Autonomic nervous system?

Regulate the body’s internal environment

The Parasympathetic nervous system is associated w/

Rest and relaxation

What is the sympathetic nervous system associated with?

The fight or flight response

The midbrain/mesencephalon is responsible for:

Sensory and motor functions

The periaqueductal gray refers to:

Grey matter around the cerebral aqueduct, which mediates the effects of opioids

What is the substantia nigra responsible for?

Sensorimotor functions

The ventral tegmental area holds the:

Reward pathway

The diencephalon contains:

Thalamus and hypothalamus

What does the thalamus do?

Sensory relay

The hypothalamus controls:

The four F’s - feeding, fleeing, fighting, and fornicating

The telencephalon is involved in:

Voluntary movement, sensory input, and mediates cognitive processes

What is the prefrontal cortex/frontal lobe involved in?

Decision making and emotional regulation

What are the functions of the cerebral cortex?

Thinking, voluntary movement, speech, and info processing

The corpus callosum connects:

The brain hemispheres

The limbic system is responsible for:

Learning, memory, emotion, and motivation; contains the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hippocampus