Dev psych introductory content, ToM and Chi Square, lab report results

8 Crises of Erikson’s psychosocial theory of development

• Infancy

• Toddlerhood

• Early childhood

• Mid/late childhood

• Adolescence

• Young adulthood

• Middle adulthood

• Late adulthood.

Crisis of infancy and the resulting virtue

• Trust vs mistrust

• Virtue: hope

Crisis of toddlerhood

• Autonomy vs shame

• Virtue: Will

Crisis of early childhood

• Initiative vs guilt

• Virtue: Purpose

Crisis of middle/late childhood

• industry vs inferiority

• Virtue: competence

Crisis of adolescence

• Identity vs role confusion

• Virtue: fidelity

Crisis for young adulthood

• Intimacy vs isolation

• virtue: love

Crisis for middle adulthood

• generativity vs stagnation

• virtue: Care

Crisis of late adulthood

• Integrity vs Despair

• virtue: Wisdom

Theory of Mind (ToM)

The ability to attribute different mental states to oneself and other people. Recognition that everyone has a different mental state and this influences behaviour.

ToM at 3 months old

• rudimentary joint attention.

• before age 3 months, they show interest in others.

ToM at 8 months:

Understand the concept of intentions

ToM at 9 months old

Can understand that people use gestures/can use gestures themselves?

ToM ability at 12 months

Can understand other people’s desires

ToM at 18 months

• refined joint attention

• imitation

• sensitive to other people’s intentions

ToM at age 24 months

Pretend play

When does false belief understanding typically develop?

Around age 4, between 3 and 5.

Preliminary interpretive ToM

To be able to see a character in a story and interpret how they might be feeling.

• develops around age 5.

Second Order ToM

Being able to understand that other people can interpret other people’s ToM.

• develops around age 6.

When does understanding of sarcasm and irony begin to develop

• about age 9.

How a child would indicate having ToM using the Sally-Anne test

The child would answer that Sally would look in her basket for the ball, indicating that the child knows Sally is unaware that Anne moved the ball to her box. This indicates understanding of false beliefs.

How a child would indicate having ToM with the M&M test

The child would say that their father would think there were M&Ms in the bag, indicating that they understand that their father hasn’t seen that the bag contains pencils instead of M&Ms and would therefore have a different expectation of what is in the bag. This indicates understanding of false beliefs (which typically develops around age 4)

Achievement status

Explored and committed to an identity

• linked to positive self esteem, lower anxiety, high self esteem, good moral reasoning, good relationships.

Moratorium identity status

Has explored identity options but not yet committed to one.

• linked to difficulty with life direction, anxiety, however also attributes associated with identity achievement somewhat?

• according to jones et al., moratorium is positively correlated with friendship conflict.

Diffusion identity status

Neither explored nor committed.

• linked to depression/apathy, hopelessness, risky behaviour

• according to Jones et al., diffusion is negatively associated with friendship support, and positively correlated with gender. Also positively associated with friendship conflict.

Foreclosure

Committed but hasn’t explored (eg: royal family).

• correlated with rigidity, seeing other opinions as a threat, shallow relationships.

• according to Jones et al, foreclosure is not associated with friendship quality?

Steps of chi square significance testing

• create a cross tabulated contingency table of your categorical variables.

• calculate expected values and obtain observed values.

• Calculate standard residuals value for each box.

• Calculate chi square value

• Calculate degrees of freedom.

• Look up chi square value in probability table.

Equation to calculate Expected value:

E = (row total x column total) / number of people in the entire table.

Equation for standardised residuals

Z = (observed-expected) / square root of expected.

Equation for chi square value

Chi square = sum (observed-expected)² / expected.

Degrees of freedom equation

(number in rows - 1) x (number in columns -1).

How to interpret standardised residuals (Z)

• A Z value over 1.96 or below -1.96 is significant.

• Positive Z value indicates that there were more people than expected by chance in this category.

• Negative Z value means there were less people than expected by chance in this category.

For the cross tabulation of identity status and friendship quality, which categories showed a significant association?

• Achieved identity and supportive friendship had significantly less people than expected by chance. Z = -2.34

• Achieved identity and conflicting friendship had significantly more people than expected by chance. Z = 2.10.

For the cross tabulation of identity status and wellbeing, which categories had a significant association?

• identity achievement and high wellbeing had a significantly positive association. Z = 1.99.

• identity diffusion and high wellbeing had a significantly negative association. Z = -2.62.

• identity foreclosure and high wellbeing had a significantly positive association. Z = 3.22.

Correct reporting of chi square:

A significant association between identity status and wellbeing was revealed by a chi square test of independence, chi² (6, n = 621) = 27.17, p < 0.05