Chapter 7: Social Thinking and Social Influence

Person perception

the process of forming impressions of others

Five key sources of person perception

1. Appearance
2. Verbal behavior
3.Actions
4, Nonverbal messages (expressions, gestures, etc.)
5. Situations

Snap judgments

judgments made quickly and based on only a few bits of information and preconceived notions

Systematic judgments

judgments that require more controlled processing and tend to occur when forming impressions of others that can affect our happiness or welfare

Attributions

inferences that people draw about the causes of their own behavior, others' behavior, and events

Types of attributions

1. Internal attributions
2. External attributions

Internal attributions

when people attribute the cause of others' behavior to personal dispositions, traits, abilities, or feelings

External attributions

when people attribute the cause of others' behavior to situational demands or environmental constraints

When are we most likely to make attributions?

- When others behave in unexpected or negative ways
- When events are personally relevant
- When we are suspicious about others' motives

Confirmation bias

seeking information that supports one's beliefs while not pursuing disconfirming information

Self-fulfilling prophecy

expectations about a person cause the person to behave in ways that confirm the expectations

Social categorization

cognitive "shortcuts" in which we categorize people on the basis of nationality, race, gender, etc.

Three important results of categorizing

- People have more negative attitudes toward outgroup members
- People see outgroup members as more alike than they really are (the outgroup homogeneity effect)
- The visibility of outgroup members is heightened when they comprise the minority in a crowd.

Stereotypes

widely held beliefs that people have certain characteristics because of their membership in a particular group

Why do stereotypes persist?

- Simplicity
- Confirmation bias
- Self-fulfilling prophecy

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency to explain other people's behavior as the result of personal, rather than situational, factors

Two steps to making attributions

- Focusing on the person (internal attribution)
- Taking the situation into account (external attributions)

Defensive attribution

the tendency to blame victims for their misfortune, so that one feels less likely to be victimized in a similar way

Prejudice

a negative attitude toward members of a group

Discrimination

involves behaving differently, usually unfairly, toward the members of a group

Modern discrimination

people privately harbor negative attitudes toward minority groups, but express them only when they feel such views are justified, or that it's safe to do so

Causes of prejudice

1. Authoritarian personality
2. Cognitive distortions and expectations (stereotyping...)
3. Competition between groups
4. Threats to social identity

Reducing prejudiice

1. Cognitive stratigies (controlled strategies)
2. Intergroup contact

Persuasion

involves the communication of arguments and information intended to change another person's attitudes

Attitudes

beliefs and feelings about people, objects, and ideas

Elements of the persuasion process

1. Source
2. Receiver
3. Message
4. Channel

Source factors

1. High credibility (expertise and trustworthyness)
2. Likable (attractive and/or similar)

Message factors

1. Two-sided arguments
2. Emotional appeals
3. Positive feelings

Receiver factors

1. Positiveness
2. Need for cognition
3. Forewarning
4. Message content compatibility

Conformity

occurs when people yield to real or imagined social pressure

Compliance

occurs when people yield to social pressure in their public behavior, even though their private beliefs have not changed

Normative influence

operates when people conform to social norms for fear of negative social consequences

Informational influence

operates when people look to others for how to behave in ambiguous situations

Bystander effect

the tendency for individuals to be less likely to provide help when others are present than when they are alone

Resisting conformity pressures

- Pay more attention to social forces operating on you
- Identify someone in the group whose views match yours
- Bring along a friend with similar views if you know that you will confront pressure

Obedience

is a form of compliance that occurs when people follow direct commands, usually from someone in a position of authority

Obedience is strongest when:

- Demands increase gradually
- Others take responsibility for your actions
- We are motivated to meet the authority figure's expectations