General Psycology Chapter 1-3

Psychology

The scientific study of mind and behavior.

Seven modern perspectives of psychology

1. Psychodynamic: Focuses on unconscious drives and early childhood experiences. 2. Behavioral: Focuses on observable behaviors and learned responses. 3. Humanistic: Focuses on self-actualization, free will, and human potential. 4. Cognitive: Focuses on mental processes like memory, problem-solving, and perception. 5. Biological: Focuses on brain chemistry, genetics, and neurological processes. 6. Evolutionary: Focuses on adaptation, natural selection, and survival behaviors. 7. Sociocultural: Focuses on social environment, cultural norms, and group dynamics.

Key figures behind the seven modern psychological perspectives

• Psychodynamic: Sigmund Freud
• Behavioral: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner
• Humanistic: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow
• Cognitive: Jean Piaget, Ulric Neisser
• Biological: Charles Darwin, William James
• Evolutionary: David Buss, Charles Darwin
• Sociocultural: Lev Vygotsky, Kenneth Clark

Case study method

An in-depth investigation of a single individual, group, or event.

• Strengths: Provides detailed, rich qualitative data; useful for investigating rare conditions.
• Weaknesses: Cannot be easily generalized to larger populations; vulnerable to researcher bias.
• Why used: Allows research on topics that cannot be ethically manipulated or recreated in a lab.

Descriptive research

Research strategies designed to observe and describe behavior without manipulating variables. Types:

• Naturalistic observation
• Laboratory observation
• Case studies
• Surveys and questionnaires

Type of scientific study that can establish cause and effect

Experimental research (the experimental study).

Placebo effect

A phenomenon in which a participant experiences a real change or improvement in symptoms due to their expectations rather than an active treatment or drug.

Primary functions of the amygdala

Processing emotions—particularly fear, aggression, and pleasure—and forming emotional memories.

Resting potential vs. Action potential

• Resting potential: The electrical charge of a neuron when inactive, typically around $-70\,\text{mV}$.
• Action potential: A sudden, rapid reversal of membrane potential (depolarization) that travels down the axon when the threshold of excitation is reached.

Agonist vs. Antagonist

• Agonist: A chemical or drug that mimics or enhances the effect of a neurotransmitter at receptor sites.
• Antagonist: A chemical or drug that blocks or inhibits the normal action of a neurotransmitter.

Methods of removing neurotransmitters from the synapse

1. Reuptake: The presynaptic neuron reabsorbs the neurotransmitter molecules (the fastest and most common method).
2. Enzymatic degradation: Enzymes break down neurotransmitters into inactive fragments.

Functions of key hindbrain structures

• Reticular Formation: Regulates sleep, arousal, alertness, and attention.
• Medulla: Controls vital autonomic life functions like heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.
• Pons: Relays signals between the cerebellum and cortex; involved in sleep, dreaming, and facial movements.
• Cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary motor movement, balance, posture, and procedural learning.

Effects of injuries to the four lobes of the brain

• Frontal Lobe: Impaired executive functioning, personality changes, difficulty planning, motor deficits, and Broca's aphasia.
• Parietal Lobe: Loss of somatosensory processing (touch, temperature, pain), spatial disorientation, and tactile agnosia.
• Temporal Lobe: Auditory processing deficits, memory impairment, and Wernicke's aphasia.
• Occipital Lobe: Visual impairment, field defects, or cortical blindness.

Anatomy of a neuron

• Soma: The cell body containing the nucleus; maintains cellular life.
• Axon: Long fiber that conducts electrical impulses away from the soma toward other neurons.
• Dendrites: Branching extensions that receive incoming signals from other neurons.
• Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer insulating the axon that speeds up signal transmission.
• Axon Terminals: Knobs at the end of axon branches that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Lobes containing the Primary Motor and Somatosensory Cortices

• Primary Motor Cortex: Located in the frontal lobe (precentral gyrus).
• Primary Somatosensory Cortex: Located in the parietal lobe (postcentral gyrus).

Afferent vs. Efferent nerves

• Afferent (sensory) nerves: Carry sensory signals from sensory receptors inward toward the central nervous system.
• Efferent (motor) nerves: Carry motor commands outward from the central nervous system to muscles and glands.

Just Noticeable Difference vs. Absolute Threshold

• Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The minimal difference between two stimuli required to detect a difference $50\%$ of the time.
• Absolute Threshold: The lowest intensity level at which a stimulus can be detected $50\%$ of the time.

Olfactory bulbs

Structures located at the base of the brain above the nasal cavity that receive neural signals from olfactory receptors and process information about smell.

Major structures and functions of the eye

• Cornea: Clear protective outer surface that bends incoming light.
• Pupil: Adjustable opening controlling light entry.
• Iris: Colored muscle controlling pupil size.
• Lens: Transparent structure that focuses light onto the retina.
• Retina: Light-sensitive inner surface containing rods and cones.
• Fovea: Central retinal point for detailed vision.
• Optic Nerve: Transmits visual signals to the brain.

Functions of rods vs. cones

• Rods: High sensitivity to light, specialized for night vision, peripheral vision, and motion; process in black and white.
• Cones: Require bright light, specialized for high visual acuity, color vision, and detail; concentrated in the fovea.

Primary colors of light and additive color mixing

• Primary colors: Red, green, and blue.
• Additive mixing: Combining all three primary wavelengths in equal proportions yields white light.

Pathway and structures of the ear from pinna to auditory nerve

• Pinna: Outer ear structure funneling sound waves into the canal.
• Auditory Canal: Tube directing sound to the tympanic membrane.
• Tympanic Membrane (Eardrum): Vibrates in response to sound waves.
• Ossicles (Malleus, Incus, Stapes): Amplifies and transfers vibrations to the oval window.
• Cochlea: Fluid-filled chamber containing hair cells for signal transduction.
• Basilar Membrane: Holds hair cells that flex in response to fluid movement.
• Auditory Nerve: Transmits electrical impulses to the auditory cortex.

Habituation vs. Sensory adaptation

• Habituation: Decreased behavioral response to a repeated stimulus occurring in the brain (cognitive/central process).
• Sensory adaptation: Decreased receptor sensitivity due to constant stimulus exposure occurring at sensory receptor cells.

Kinesthetic sense, proprioception, and vestibular sense

• Kinesthetic sense: Perception of body movement and specific limb positioning.
• Proprioception: Perception of overall body position and posture provided by internal receptors in muscles and joints.
• Vestibular sense: Sense of balance, head position, and spatial orientation mediated by semicircular canals in the inner ear.

Illusion vs. Hallucination

• Illusion: A misinterpretation or distortion of a real external sensory stimulus.
• Hallucination: A sensory perception in the absence of any external stimulus.