Chapter 5 Communication

nonverbal communication

communication using body movements, gestures, and facial expressions rather than speech

Example of nonverbal communication

When director Pete Docter set out to make the Pixar hit Inside Out (Docter & Del Carmen, 2015), he did his homework. In telling the story of 11-year-old Riley, who is uprooted from her life in Minnesota to move with her family to San Francisco, Docter envisioned Riley's complex emotions and how she would communicate these verbally and nonverbally in her new surroundings. Docter turned to two professors who specialize in emotion and expression: Paul Ekman and Dacher Keltner (Keltner & Ekman, 2015).

nonverbal behavior

the facial expressions, gestures, mannerisms, and movements by which one communicates with others

Example of nonverbal behavior

You communicate nonverbally when you convey a message without using any words. But you also communicate nonverbally when you use nonverbal behaviors in addition to words.
when you smile, frown, or gesture as you speak or when you use a particular tone or volume while talking.

Example of nonverbal behavior

For example, individuals with schizophrenia oen display less traditional nonverbal behaviors like nodding and smiling, but display leakage cues like fumbling, looking away, or "freezing" behaviors that they can't control (Worswick, Dimic, Wildgrube, & Priebe, 2018). The competent interpretation of both intentional and unintentional nonverbal messages is difficult because nonverbal behaviors can have so many different meanings.

Reinforcing verbal messages

repeating, complementing, accenting

Example of Reinforcing Verbal Messages

. For example, when you pat a friend on the back while saying, "You did a great job, " you reinforce the message that your friend has done well.

Nonverbal behaviors are also used for accenting — clarifying and emphasizing specific information — in a verbal message. For example, suppose you want your friend to meet you at a local pub at 6 P.M. You make eye contact, touch the friend lightly on the forearm, and vocally emphasize "the one on Victoria Street."

Substituting

the use of nonverbal cues in place of oral messages when speaking is impossible, undesirable, or inappropriate

Example of Substiuting

For example, a traffic officer's outstretched palm substitutes for the word stop. Substituting is common in situations where words are unavailable (e.g., communicating with someone who speaks a different language) or when speaking aloud would be inappropriate (e.g., at a performance or during a religious service). Substitution cues signal information you would rather not say aloud (raising your eyebrows at your partner to signal you want to leave a party) or help you communicate when you do not know the words to use (pointing to the location of pain to your doctor; Rowbotham, Holler, Lloyd, & Wearden, 2012). Nonverbal cues can at times even be more powerful than words, such as when a big hug shows more support for a sad friend than any words you can think of. Or when a sports figure on camera kneels or stands during the national anthem.

regulating interaction

using nonverbal behaviors to help manage conversational interaction

Example of regulating interaction

For example, you dress professionally for a job interview; your smile, firm handshake, and friendly tone convey your sincerity as you say, "This sounds like a wonderful organization to work for." The hiring manager's smiles and nods — or frowns and silence — in turn influence your behaviors back to her (Keating, 2006). Should you get the job, your nonverbal behaviors help you manage a tense situation with your boss by keeping a respectful distance and lowering your tone of voice. Additionally, nonverbal behaviors (like smiles and eye contact) help you manage your ongoing, everyday interactions with coworkers. In fact, some nonverbal behaviors are associated with prestige (earned respect) and dominance (use of intimidation or force to obtain power). Prestige is associated with an upward tilted head position, presence of symmetrical smiles, and subtle chest expansion, while dominance displays include more downward head positions, asymmetrical smiles, and more grandiose use of space (Witkower, Tracy, Cheng, & Henrich, 2019).

Regulators

gestures that control the flow of conversation

Example of Regulators

for example, indicate that you want to speak or ask a question. Raising your eyebrows usually indicates you want information from others (Flecha-García, 2010). We may try to get someone to stop yelling at us by putting our fingers in our ears, and we may wave our hand in quick circles in order to get a colleague to hurry up and "get to the point" in her presentation.

Emblems

gestures that stand for a specific verbal meaning

Example of Emblems

Examples in the United States include the "thumbs-up" and "okay" signs. Their meanings are so clear that they can easily substitute for words. Emblems for "yes, " "no, " and "I don't know" are similar across cultures, but the meanings of most emblems vary greatly from one culture to another (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013); the index finger and thumb touching one another to mean "okay" in the United States might be a vulgar insult in another country. Emblems may evolve into a number of variations, as the Hawaiian "shaka" has. The original "hang loose" sign is made by extending the pinkie and thumb fingers while curling the pointer, middle, and ring fingers to say thanks or confirm the other. And you can change the message you send by using both hands (excitement), by quickly tilting the shaka downward (too bad), or by moving your body wildly while making the hand gesture (threat or ironic pose; Allen, 2017).

facial expressions of emotion

anger, happiness, surprise, fear, disgust, and sadness

Example of facial expression

A smile,

for example, usually indicates happiness; a frown, sadness; raised eyebrows, surprise or doubt; and wrinkled eyebrows, concern

emotional intelligence

the ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

Example of Emotional intelligence

for example, increasing EI among young criminal offenders helps them recognize emotions in others from their facial expressions — resulting in a reduction in subsequent crimes (Hubble, Bower, Moore, & van Goozen, 2015). And there is evidence that reducing "screen time" (mobile phones, computers, etc.) for adolescents and having them instead interact face to face can improve their ability to read "real" people's facial expressions (Uhls et al., 2014).

eye behavior

a category of kinesics and a subcategory of facial expressions that includes any movement or behavior of the eyes

Example of Eye Behavior

For example, you may use direct eye contact with a hiring manager in a job interview in the United States to make a stronger impression. Or you may look at a casual acquaintance differently from how you look at your significant other. Even looking away from someone — gaze aversion — carries messages (e.g., disinterest, dislike, boredom, disagreement). Thus, your eye contact or the lack of it can send messages of liking, loving, attraction, or contempt (see "The Functions of Eye Contact").

Functions of eye contact

To monitor feedback
To secure attention
To regulate the conversation
To signal the nature of the relationship
To signal status
To compensate for physical distance

Influences on Attitude Change

Person giving the message
Content of message
Audience recieveing message

Example of Influences attitude change

For example, looking at someone to get the person to trust you or comply with your wishes.

degree of arousal

to drive

Example of degree of arousal

For example, glancing across a crowded room to signal attraction or interest; looking at a customer attentively in the interest of positive evaluations-and sales (Ford, 1999).

Expresses emotion

Displays affect and emotions in a way that is socially appropriate

Example of Expresses emotion

For example, so eyes of loving looks; frightened eyes of a startled person; hard eyes of an angry person.

regulates interaction

nonverbal communication can organize interaction between people.

Example of Regulates interaction

For example, looking at a conversational partner when listening; regulating eye contact to assume or give up the speaking role (Wiemann & Knapp, 1999)

Example of indicates the power

For example, direct, prolonged gaze to convey dominance; avoidance of eye contact to signal submission (Burgoon & Dunbar, 2006).

Example of Forms of impression

For example, making eye contact with an audience member to communicate confidence and sincerity

physical appearance

appearance of hair, clothing, body type, and other physical features

Example of Physical Appearance

Rupinder Singh is a man who wears a turban in public. He folds and then wraps the six-foot piece of cotton around his head — and uncut hair — a process that takes about five minutes. As a follower of the Sikh faith, he considers his turban sacred and a sign of equal status among his fellow Sikh followers. Rupinder coordinates the color of his turban with his shirt, pants, jacket and shoes — and has special colors for religious celebrations (orange, blue, white) or weddings (red) (Singh, 2016). Rupinder's turban indicates his religion, but not the many other things about him. What you wear — and the way you fix your hair or makeup — does not speak directly to your abilities or define you as a person, but it does communicate messages about you. In fact, the initial impression your appearance makes may affect your future interactions with others (DeKay, 2009).

environment

the surroundings or conditions in which a person, animal, or plant lives or operates.

Example of Environment

For example, the way you arrange your furniture can encourage interaction or discourage it; the décor, lighting, and cleanliness of the space all send messages about how you want interactions to proceed. Even the scent of a space impacts communication: customers stay in stores longer and rate the store higher if the aroma is pleasant (as in the scent of chocolate in a bookstore; Doucé, 2013)

Culture and Nonverbal Communication

- Differences in Facial Expressions
- Different Meanings for Color
- Differences in Touching
- Differences in Perceptions of Time

Example of Culture and Nonverbal Communication

For example, if you have ever traveled abroad, you may have been advised that certain hand gestures that are entirely acceptable and quite positive in the United States (e.g., "A-OK" or "thumbs-up") are deeply insulting and crude in other parts of the world (Matsumoto & Hwang, 2013)

When it comes to eye gaze, people in the United States tend to make direct eye contact when speaking to someone, whether a colleague, a supervisor, or a professor. Similarly, in the Middle East, engaging in long and direct eye contact with your speaking partner shows interest and helps you assess the sincerity and truth of the other person's words. However, in Latin America, Japan, and the Caribbean, such sustained eye behavior is a sign of disrespect.