BIO 1107, Exam 4, Dr. Abbott, UConn

Arteriosclerosis

Hardening of the walls of an artery

-Arterio = artery

-Sclerosis = Hardening

Atherosclerosis is a type of arteriosclerosis

Red blood cells are primarily produced in these types of bone

-High bone marrow, low density bone

-Vertebrae, hips, ribs, sternum

RNA polymerase I builds

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

What are the granulocytes and their functions?

Neutrophils

-Helps in phagocytosis

Eosinophils

-Fights infection, Anti-parasitic

Basophil

-Inflammation and allergic reactions

-release histamine and heparin

RNA polymerase II builds

messenger RNA (mRNA)

What are the covalent 6 modifications to proteins?

-Phosphorylation

-Glycosylation

-Hydroxylation

-Methylation

-Acetylation

-Ubiquitination

The disease Alkaptonuria is caused by a mutation in what gene.

HGD (Homogentisate 1,2-Dioxygenase)

-HGD is involved in the breaking down of phenylamine and tyrosine

What is the central dogma of biology?

DNA -> RNA -> Protein

Monomers of lactose

glucose and galactose

Start codon

AUG (methionine)

codon that signals to ribosomes to begin translation; codes for the first amino acid in a protein

How many stop codons are there?

what are they?

3 (UAA, UGA, UAG)

U Are Annoying

U Go Away

U Are Gone

How many different amino acids are there?

20 different amino acids

Redundant codons/ amino acid sequence definition

More than one possible three letter sequence to encode for a particular amino acid.

In RNA, Uracil base-pairs with?

Adenine

permeases are what kind of protein?

transmembrane transport proteins

-Allows lactose to get through the cell membrane

Chaperone proteins assist with

Protein folding

rRNA catalyzes what?

Peptide bonds between amino acids attached to tRNA

-Protein synthesis

Which tRNA structure recognizes the mRNA during translation

Anticodon

What is a charged tRNA?

tRNA bonded to an amino acid

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase

An enzyme that joins each amino acid to the appropriate tRNA.

aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase recognizes which structure of tRNA

D-loop/D-arm

Which tRNA structure binds to the ribosome

T-loop/ T-arm

Remember: T-loop Tethers tRNA

The two parts of a ribosome are called

large subunit (60s) and small subunit (40s)

Describe the large subunit of the ribosome

-Contains catalytic Chambers

-Where transcription takes place

Describe the small subunit of the ribosome.

-Where initial binding to mRNA happens

Which amino acid codons are not degenerate/redundant.

Tryptophan- UGG

methionine - AUG

-only one codon encodes for these amino acids

A mutation in the gene HGD causes this disease

Alkaptonuria

Start and stop codons effect both.

Translation and transcription

What are the 3 sites on a ribosome?

E site, P site, A site

Ribosomal subunits are made of

rRNA and proteins

Auxotrophs

-Organisms that has lost ability to synthesize certain substances required for growth

-Used for mapping of different proteins involved in biochemical synthesis pathways and identification of mutagenic compounds

DNA complementary bases to the start codon

TAC

-Start codon: AUG

Levels of penetrants

How much expression is seen in the organism due to a mutation

codon degeneracy

More than one codon specific a specific amino acid

-The redundancy

The left ventricle pumps oxygenated or deoxygenated blood and where?

-Oxygenated blood

-To the rest of the body though Aorta

Veins move blood _____ the heart

toward

Capillaries

-Fine branching blood vessels

-Between arterioles and venules

-Deliver nutrients, remove waste

-Very thin membrane = +diffusion efficiency

-Large cross-sectional area, slows blood = +diffusion

Arteries move blood ______ from the heart

away

Diffusing rates are affected by

-thickness of membrane

-Concentration gradient

-Temperature

Erythrocyte

red blood cell

-most common type of bloodcell

Blood pressure is highest in the arteries or veins.

Highest in the arteries

Arteries--> away from heart

-before capillaries

Lowest in the veins

Veins --> towards heart

-past capillaries

semilunar valves

pulmonary and aortic valves located between the right ventricle and the pulmonary artery and between the left ventricle and the aorta

AV node (atrioventricular node) function

region of the heart between the right atrium and right ventricle from which electrical impulses spread to the ventricles during a heartbeat

SA node (sinoatrial node)

-pacemaker of the heart

-sets the heartbeat rate

-located in the right atrium

-causes atria to contract

Function of platelets (thrombocytes)

Blood-clotting mechanism (coagulation)

What are the Agranulocytes and their functions?

Lymphocytes

-B lymphocytes -Makes antibodies

-T lymphocytes - Control immune response

-Natural killer cell - kills tumor and infected cells

Monocytes

-Fights off bacteria, fungi, and viruses

Erythropoietin (EPO) secreted by? Function?

-Secreted by kidneys

-Stimulates erythrocyte production

Name the structure that separates the heart into two distinct halves.

Septum

The combination of using skin and lungs for gas exchange is called?

pulmocutaneous

-only seen in amphibians

Artery -> arterioles -> capillary bed

Does blood flow rate increase or decrease?

Decrease

-larger cross-sectional volume

The right atrium receives oxygenated or deoxygenated blood from where

Deoxygenated blood from body tissue

The right ventricle pumps oxygenated or deoxygenated blood to where?

Deoxygenated blood to the pulmonary loop though pulmonary arteries

Atrioventricular valve

-Valve between an atrium and ventricle in the heart

Diastole

Relaxation of the heart

Blood pressure = systolic pressure over diastolic pressure

Systole

Contraction of the heart

pulmocutaneous

Combination of using skin and lungs for gas exchange

-only seen in amphibians

The left atrium receives oxygenated or deoxidated blood from where?

oxygenated blood from pulmonary loop

Veins have valves to prevent.

backflow of blood

-Arteries do not contain valves

Atherosclerosis

condition in which fatty deposits called plaque buildup on the inner walls of the arteries.

Athero - pasty material / plaque

Sclerosis - hardening

Heart attack caused by

Sudden reduction in blood flow to cardiac/ heart muscle

-Myocardial infarction

Progenitor cells are

A cell that has lost the capacity for self renewal and is committed to the generation of a particular cell lineage

Septum

Separates the heart into two distinct halves

Stroke is the

Sudden reduction of blood flow to the brain

Blocked artery = Ischemic stroke

Leaking or bursting of blood vessel = Hemorrhagic stoke

If the volume of the lungs increases, what happens to the air pressure inside the lungs?

Decrease

-Also, applies to blood pressure when entering capillaries (cross-sectional volume increases)

Hemolymph

circulatory fluid in invertebrates

-"invertebrate blood"

-Does not use hemoglobin to carry blood, some use copper compounds. "Blue blood"

Hemophilia

A hereditary disease where blood does not coagulate to stop bleeding

Type A - Factor 8

Type B - Factor 9

Type C - Factor 11

Rank from highest pressure to lowest: Capillaries, Arteries, veins

-Arteries

-Veins

-Capilaries

Do arteries or veins have thicker walls?

arteries have thicker walls

-Due to higher pressure

Globulins function

-Transport lips and fat soluble vitamins

-some are enzymes

Albumins function

Osmotic balance, pH buffering, Transports wastes and hormones

If volume decreases then pressure

increases

Ischemia Vs. Infarction

Ischemia: term for not getting enough oxygen

Infarction: death of the tissue

-possible end result of too much Ischemia

Venous blood and arterial blood

-Venous blood is deoxygenated blood that enters the right atrium,

-Arterial blood is oxygenated blood that enters the left atrium

Aortic aneurism

-Bursting or splitting of the aorta

-Aorta stretches during ventricle contraction

Thrombin function

converts fibrinogen into fibrin, causing blood clotting

-enzyme

-aka clotting factor 2

Fibrinogen function

blood clotting

-aka clotting factor 1

Action potential

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

myelin sheath

A layer of fatty tissue segmentally encases the fibers of many neurons. Enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next.

-Insulates the axon

-Protects nerve cell

-Increase the rate of conduction

Receptor

protein that detects a signal molecule and performs an action in response

-Auditory receptors

-Olfactory receptors

-Photoreceptors

Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in the myelin sheath to which voltage-gated sodium channels are confined.

What produces myelin in the CNS? in the PNS?

Oligodendrocytes - CNS

Schwann cells - PNS

Glial cells

non-neuronal cells that are associated with and work with nerve cells

Ex: Astrocytes- CNS - support and maintain ion concentration of interstitial fluid (plays a role in the Blood Brain Barrier)

Oligodendrocytes - Produces myelin in the CNS

Schwann cells - produce myelin in the PNS

Axon hillock

A specialized part of the cell body (soma) of a neuron that connects to the axon

-Where action potential is generated

Presynaptic neuron

Neuron that transfers information from one cell to the other

sending neuron

Ganglia and nuclei

ganglia - cluster of nerve cell bodies in the PNS

Nuclei - cluster of nerve cell bodies in the CNS

Of the two types of synapses?

1. electrical - Direct physical contact between pre and post neuron

2. chemical - Gap between neurons

-Use neurotransmitters

-Found in CNS and PNS

Which type of synapse evolutionarily came first?

Chemical came first

Electrical vs chemical synapses

electrical synapses occur when the cytoplasms of two cells are joined by gap junctions. If two cells are joined by an electrical synapse, an action potential will spread directly from one cell to another.

chemical synapses are found at the ends of axons where they meet their target cell; here an action potential is converted to a chemical signal.

refractory period

-Period of hyperpolarization, action potential cannot be generated

The "threshold" potential of a membrane is the

-Point where depolarization begins, the voltage needed for Na+ voltage-gated channels to open

-55mV

-70mV --> Na+ into cell slowly ---> -55mV ---> NA+ into cell quickly via voltage-gated channel = depolarization

Equilibrium potential of ions is based on

Concentration gradients

-Electrostatic forces

-Membrane permeability

Astrocytes

-Closely cover the surface of blood vessels, provide physical support and maintain concentrations of ions in interstitial fluid

-Type of Glial cell

-Plays are role in the blood-brain barrier

The sodium-potassium pumps how many K+? (into or out of the cell)?

How much Na+? (into or out of the cell)?

-2 K+ into the cell

-3 Na+ out of the cell

-Uses ATP

-Maintains resting potential

Remember: Salted Banana

Action potential phases

1. Resting potential (-70mV)

2. Depolarization Na+ --> cell

-voltage-gated sodium channels open

3. Repolarization K+ --> Out of cell

4. Hyperpolarization/overshoot

-Na+/k+ pumps begin charge back to resting potential

Oligodendrocytes

Produce myelin in CNS

-type of Glial cell

voltage gated channels

Open and close depending on membrane voltage

-passive transport

-Threshold --> Voltage-gated channels open --> depolarization

Afferent vs Efferent nerves

-Afferent (sensory): Receptor --> CNS

-Efferent (motor): CNS --> muscle, gland, or organ

Non-neural cells that assist neurons are called

Glial cells

-Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells

membrane potential

The voltage across a cell's plasma membrane.

-The imbalance/polarity

Diffusion vs Electrostatic forces

Diffusion based on concentrations

Electrostatic based on electrical charges

-forces counteract each other in neuron