chapter 3: cellular levels of organization

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A&P 1 - dr tenneson

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1
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the _____ is the basic, living, structural, and functional unit of the body
cell
2
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define cytology
study of cell structure
3
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define cell physiology
study of cell function
4
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what are the 3 principle parts of the cell?
plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus
5
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describe the plasma membrane & fluid mosaic model
plasma membrane is a flexible, sturdy barrier surrounding the cytoplasm. the fluid mosaic model is a gelatinous \[phospholipids\] layer with floating proteins
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the plasma membrane is __% lipid & __% protein held together by ____ bonds.

* lipid is barrier to entry/exit of polar substances. proteins regulate traffic.
* there are 50 lipids for every protein molecule. why?

50. 50. hydrogen. because lipids are smaller than proteins so there needs to be more of them to keep up the ratio
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water moves freely through protein covered tubes in the plasma membrane called _____ _____
polar pores
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what are 3 examples of amphipathic lipids?
phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids
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phospholipids have polar (_____) & nonpolar (_____) parts
charged. uncharged
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cholesterol is \[strongly/weakly/moderately?\] amphipathic.

* they are interspersed among other lipids
weakly
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what type of amphipathic lipid appears only in the membrane layer which faces the ECF (have a carbohydrate head)?
glycolipids
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* define integral membrane proteins
* what happens if it’s removed?
* define peripheral membrane proteins
* what happens if it’s removed?
extend into/across entire lipid bilayer. destroys the membrane. found at inner OR outer surface of membrane. doesn’t destroy the membrane
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what are the 6 plasma membrane functions? explain each.

1. pores (allow specific ions to move through)
2. transporters (active transporters)
3. receptors (molecule binds to it & opens a gate)
4. enzymes
5. cell ID markers (distinguishes cell from bacteria; self vs non-self)
6. linkers (connectors)
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what are the 3 overall plasma membrane functions?
communication, electrochemical gradient, selective permeability
15
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plasma membranes are selectively permeable. what does this mean?
some things can pass through & others can’t
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the plasma membrane is \[always/sometimes/never?\] permeable to water
always
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transmembrane proteins act as _____ & \[increase/decrease?\] the permeability
channels/transporters. increase
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what are 4 examples of passive processes for transport across the plasma membrane?
diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, filtration
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what are active processes in regards to transport across the plasma membrane?
requires cellular energy (active transport uses ATP). vesicle transport via exocytosis/endocytosis
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mediated transport across the plasma membrane: needs transporter proteins

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answer: :)
\:)
21
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define diffusion
movement of a substance from high to low concentration. goal is equilibrium
22
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where does diffusion occur in the body?
everywhere
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what are 3 factors that effect diffusion?
molecule size (bigger=slower), KE (high heat=speeds up), concentration gradient (not at equilibrium=speeds up)
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diffusion is caused by brownian movement. what does this mean?
molecular collisions
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according to brownian movement, molecules hit each other (collide) less when they…
spread out and reach equilibrium
26
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what are 5 examples of things that diffuse THROUGH the lipid bilayer (ie are nonpolar & hydrophobic)
water, respiratory gases (CO2, O2), some lipids, small alcohols, vitamins a, d, e, k
27
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diffusion through membrane channels:

* most are _____ channels
* small, inorganic ions which are hydrophilic
* _____: water
* ion channels are _____ & specific & may be gated or open all the time
ion. aquaporins. selective
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define osmosis & osmotic pressure
osmosis (diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane. osmotic pressure (proportional to the concentration of the solute particles that can’t cross the membrane
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osmosis/osmotic pressure experiment:

a. start of experiment: water on one side, then membrane, then high solute concentration on other side… water levels even on both sides

b. equilibrium: movement due to hydrostatic pressure… water level higher on side with high solute concentration

c. restoring starting conditions: applied pressure on side with high solute concentration = osmotic pressure to make volumes equal on both sides of membrane

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\
answer: :)
\:)
30
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describe RBCs in isotonic, hypotonic, & hypertonic solutions.

1. isotonic: equally salty inside & outside of cell. normal cell shape.
2. hypotonic: inside of cell is saltier than water. more water outside the cell → water flows into cell → cell pops (HEMOLYSIS)
3. hypertonic: more water inside cell than outside of cell → water moves out of cell → leaves RBC with less water than needed → cell shrivels (CRENATION)
31
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water movement in cells (isotonic/hypotonic/hypertonic) is caused by …?
purity of the water
32
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define filtration
movement of a substance across a membrane due to fluid pressure differences
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where does filtration occur?
everywhere with blood
34
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define facilitated diffusion
solute binds to specific transporter on one side of membrane & released on other side after transporter undergoes conformational change (doesn’t require energy)
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what 2 types of substances does facilitated diffusion work with?
small molecules & vitamins
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the rate of facilitated diffusion depends on what 2 things?
concentration gradient & number of transporter proteins (lower number = slower diffusion)
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define active transport
requires ATP & transporter proteins. movement across concentration gradient
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what types of atoms are moved in active transport?
charged atoms
39
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cystic fibrosis:

* genetic
* produces abnormal …
* affects which 4 systems?
* genetic engineering failed
* triple-drug can _____ life by 90%. treats symptoms but doesn’t cure
* is there a cure?
* what is a method of treatment that is alternative medicine that has been accepted by mainstream medicine?
* _____ production interferes with gas exchange
chloride ion transporter. respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive. improve. no. type of massage on back to loosen fluid in lungs. mucous
40
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what is a vesicle & what are 2 ways it can work?
small membranous sac formed by budding off from an existing membrane. endocytosis & exocytosis
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* define endocytosis
* define phagocytosis
* define pinocytosis
* define exocytosis & the process
bringing something into cell. cell eating by macrophages & WBCs; binds to receptor protein. cell drinking; no receptor proteins. release something from cell; vesicles form inside cell, fuse to membrane, release contents (digestive enzymes, hormones, neurotransmitters, waste products), replace cell membrane lost by endocytosis
42
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define cytosol

* location?
* structure?
* function?
semifluid part of cytoplasm. inside cell membrane, NOT including organelles. semifluid. medium for metabolic reactions
43
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define cytoskeleton
protein filaments throughout cytosol. functions as cell support and shape
44
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define centrosomes, what they contain, how they work, how they move chromosomes, etc
dense areas of cytoplasm. contain centrioles - paired cylinders at right angles. centers for organizing microtubules in interphase cells. mitotic spindle during cell division. spindle fibers move chromosomes from metaphase plate to poles
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describe cilia
numerous, short, hair-like projections from surface of cell membrane. move material over surface of cell
46
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describe flagella
single, very long. cellular movement. only human example - sperm tail
47
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ribosomes made of what 2 things?

* ribosomes occur singly or in _____
* ribosomes free in cytoplasm OR …
* purpose: protein synthesis
rrna & proteins. clusters. attached to ER (smooth ER)
48
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large & small ribosomal subunits:

* made where?
* assembled where?
nucleolus, cytoplasm
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does the smooth or rough ER have ribosomes attached?
rough
50
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ER:

* network of …, like a cave system
* purpose: to do what 3 things?
* _____ chemicals
* EX: when chemicals build up (like urea), ER detoxifies it
flattened sacs and tubules. transport, synthesis, storage of molecules. detoxify
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drug detoxification happens in the _____.

* one of the functions of the smooth ER is to _____ drugs
* what happens due to repeated exposure to certain drugs?
liver. detoxify. produces changes to smooth ER in the liver; results in tolerance to drugs
52
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golgi complex:

* made of what 2 materials?
* shape?
* 3 purposes?
* what are secretory vesicles?
protein & lipids. flattened sacs. processing, sorting, delivery. release the product
53
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where do lysosomes initially form?
golgi
54
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lysosomes contain powerful _____ _____
digestive enzymes
55
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4 functions lysosomes?
intracellular digestion, autophagy (worn out organelles), autolysis, extracellular digestion
56
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describe tay-sachs disorder
affects children of eastern european jewish descent. seizures, muscle rigidity, blindness, dead before 5. genetic disorder caused by absence of a lysosomal enzyme (hexosaminidase A). this enzyme normally breaks down glycolipid commonly found in nerves (destruction of nerves in nervous system because of lack of enzyme)
57
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how did tay-sachs disorder become so prevalent in the eastern european jewish descent people?
bottleneck effect. many Jews killed, and those left had unusually high rate of tay-sachs. then they passed it down/
58
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define peroxisomes
similar in structure to lysosomes. smaller. contain enzymes that oxidize organic substances
59
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what do proteosomes do?
destroy faulty proteins
60
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mitochondria:

* _____ membrane bound
* inner membrane folds are called _____
* site of _____ production
* what is special about their DNA?
double. cristae. ATP. mitochondria have their own DNA and self replicate. this DNA is inherited from the mother. fathers only contribute sperm, & the mother’s egg contains the mitochondrial DNA
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mitochondrial myopathies:

* inherited _____ disorders
* resulting from…
* muscles become _____ & _____ easily
* ^ how?
muscle. faulty mitochondrial genes. weak & fatigued. less ATP production = less endurance
62
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define cell inclusions
large non-organelles found in cytoplasm
63
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what are 3 examples of cell inclusions? explain each.
melanin (protect from UV & cancer/melanoma. protect from reflection in eyes), glycogen (long chain carbohydrate stored in muscles. readily digestible), triglycerides (1 glycerol, 3 fatty acids)
64
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the nucleus is usually the most _____ feature of a cell
prominent
65
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do RBC’s have a nucleus? why/why not?

* most cells have a nucleus
* some skeletal cells have many nuclei
no. they have a shorter lifespan because of it. no nucleus because it has one job: to carry oxygen around the body. the shape of the RBC blocks nucleus to maximize oxygen
66
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a wiffle ball can be a representation of what part of the cell?
nuclear envelope with nuclear pores
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define nucleoli deals with _____ _____. this is only observed in non-\[_?\] cells
ribosome synthesis. dividing
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where is the nucleoli located?
inside nuclear envelope
69
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chromosomes

* long & coiled dna
* how are genes arranged?
* what do histone proteins do?
* how many chromosomes do we have?
single file along length of dna. organize folding & coiling of DNA. 46; 23 pairs
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chromosomes are VERY HIGHLY _____!
coiled
71
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what is chromatin?

* describe the 2 types of chromatin?
DNA not as distinct chromosomes. heterochromatin (regulates turning off/on genes; more condensed; doesn’t contain gene; not transcribed). euchromatin (active chromatin; contains DNA; transcribed into RNA)
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describe the sense & antisense strands.
sense (coding): not copies

antisense (template): template for mRNA
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describe the 4 significant parts of a gene/dna strand
promoter (near beginning of gene where RNA polymerase attaches). introns (don’t code for proteins; later removed). exons (don’t code for parts of proteins). terminator (detachment of RNA polymerase)
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describe genetics vs genomics
genetics is how things are inherited. genomics is more broad & is about relationships between the genome & functions of an organism
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protein synthesis involves what 2 things?
transcription & translation
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briefly describe dna replication, transcription, & translation

1. dna replication: making copy of dna inside nucleus
2. transc: info transcribed from dna strand to mrna
3. transl: construction of protein using mrna instructions
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describe mrna & trna

1. mrna: instructions
2. trna: carries amino acid to ribosome
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genetic engineering/therapy:

* insert new genes into existing _____.
* used now in bacteria to produce what 4 things?
DNA. hGH, insulin (get insulin from bacteria with human gene inserted that make insulin), interferon (antivviral; blood cell production), erythroboietin
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describe CRISPR
enzyme system used to cut out gene and replace with another gene
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what term does this describe: sequence of events where a cell duplicates is its contents & divides in 2
cell cycle
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how long does the cell cycle normally last?
1-2 days
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describe the phases of the cell cycle

1. G0: prep for cell division
2. S: DNA replication (trying to go from 46 to 92 chromosomes so that when the cell splits, each cell gets 46 chromosomes (in mitosis)).
3. G2: prep for cell division
4. M: nuclear division (mitosis/meiosis) & cytokinesis (cytoplasm)
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describe prophase, metaphase, anaphase, & telophase

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answer: :)
\:)
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what’s the product of mitosis?
2 identical daughter cells (clones)
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what are 3 possible destinies of a cell?
remain alive & functioning without dividing (neuron). grow & divide (most cells). die.
86
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_____ _____ _____ (MPF) induces cell division
maturation promoting factor
87
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describe apoptosis
cell death. triggered by outside (chemicals) or inside, pr “cell suicide” (when too old)
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define necrosis
a pathological cell death due to an injury. cut off blood supply
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describe aging
normal process resulting in observable changes in structure & function, increased vulnerability to stress and disease. study: geriatrics
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what are the 4 theories of aging? describe each.

1. glycosylation: glucose added to proteins forming cross linkages, which interfere with normal cell functioning & loss of elasticity
2. genetic programming: heart, skeletal muscles, nerves always in G0. most cells divide a max of 50x
3. free radical theory: oxidative damage (steal electrons), damage lipids, proteins, nucleic acids
4. autoimmunity: changes in cell ID markers. person’s own cells attached by their own antibodies
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define progeria
genetic; telomeres very short
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define werner’s syndrome
inherited; premature aging
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define cancer
uncontrolled cell proliferation
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who studies cancer/tumors?
oncologists
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tumors are also called _____
neoplasm
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what is the difference between benign & malignant tumors?
benign can still kill you, but less so than malignant. malignant metastasizes
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what are the 5 types of cancer? define each.

1. carcinoma: epithelial
2. sarcoma: muscle/connective
3. myeloma: bone marrow
4. leukemia: blood forming organs
5. lymphoma: lymph nodes
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define hyperplasia
cancer growth
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define metastasis
spread of cancer
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define angiogenesis
growth of new blood vessels