congress of vienna and the industrial revolution

concert of europe

a new arrangement for resolving mutual foreign policy issues where the great european powers acted together to resolve international disputes between 1815 to the 1850s. these powers consulted with each other from time to time through a series of postwar congresses or conferences. the goal of this system was to maintain peace in europe

aix-la-chapelle

1818; the first international meeting among the great european nations to promote peace and cooperation. as a result of this gathering, the great powers removed their troops from france and readmitted the nation back to good standing among the other countries.

prince metternich

the chancellor of austria and the principal proponent of the belief that preventing domestic unrest was the key to maintaining internal peace. he had been one of the chief architects of the vienna settlement. he seemed to exercise chief control over the forces of european reaction and he epitomized conservatism.

conservatism

support for the established order in church and state. in the nineteenth century, it implied support for legitimate monarchies, landed aristocracies, and established churches; favored only gradual change.

nationalism

the belief that one is part of a nation, defined as a community with its own language, traditions, customs, and history that distinguish it from other nations and make it the primary focus of a person's loyalty and sense of identity.

language

an effective cornerstone in the foundation of nationalism thanks largely to the emergence of the print culture. the presence of printed books, journals, magazines, and newspapers "fixed" this in a more permanent fashion than the spoken word.

the irish problem

england had brought ireland under direct rule in 1800, but irish nationalists wanted independence or at least larger measures of self-government.

liberalism

a belief that government can and should achieve justice and equality of opportunity. sought to establish a political framework of legal equality, religious toleration, and freedom of the press. their general goal was a political structure that would limit the arbitrary power of government against the persons and property of individual citizens; they generally believed the legitimacy of government emanated from the freely given consent of the governed, and that the best way to arrange their desired political situations was through constitutions.

harriet taylor and john stuart mill

two married liberals that argued in favor of women's enfranchisement

adam smith

scottish moral philosophe(r) and a pioneer of political economics; often considered the father of capitalism. wrote on the wealth of nations and advocated for laissez-faire policy.

the wealth of nations

written by adam smith; advocated for a free market and dominated private and public discussion of industrial and commercial policy during the nineteenth century.

laissez-faire

roughly translates to "let people do as they please."; a policy that advocates for a free market

classical economics

refers to liberal economists of the nineteenth century. these people favored economic growth through free enterprise; they believed that most government action was mischievous and corrupt, and aside from maintaining a sound currency, enforcing contracts, protecting property, and imposing low tariffs and taxes, the government should leave the remainder of economic life alone. they ought to abolish the economic restraints associated with mercantilism or the regulated economies of enlightened absolute monarchs and opposed the old paternalistic legislation that established wages and labor practices by government regulation or by guild privileges.

thomas malthus

an influential classical economic writer who suggested that nothing could improve the condition of the working class. he wrote essay on the principle of population

essay on the principle of population

a work by thomas malthus; contends that the population must eventually outstrip the food supply. malthus believed that if wages were raised, the workers would simply produce more children, who would, in turn, consume both the extra wages and more food.

david ricardo

another influential classical economic writer who believed that nothing could improve the conditions of the working class. in his book principles of political economy, he wrote about "iron law of wages."

principles of political economy

a work by david ricardo; transforms the concepts of thomas malthus into the "iron law of wages."

iron law of wages

a theory from david ricardo; believed that if wages were raised, parents would have more children. they, in turn, would enter the labor market, thus expanding the number of workers and lowering wages. as wages fell, working people would produce fewer children. wages would then rise, and the process would start all over again. consequently, in the long run, wages would always tend toward a minimum level.

german confederation

an association created by the congress of vienna to replace the defunct holy roman empire. consisted of thirty-nine states under austrian leadership

frederick william iii

king of prussia during the napoleonic era

burschenschaften

student associations formed by german university students who had grown up during the days of reform and had read the writings of early german nationalists. served numerous social functions, one of which was to replace old provincial attachments with loyalty to the concept of a united german state. as time passed, these clubs became increasingly anti-semitic.

karl sand incident

in march 1819, a student and member of a burschenschaften assassinated conservative dramatist august von kotzebue because he had ridiculed the burschenschaften movement. the student, who was tried and publicly executed, became a nationalist martyr.

carlsbad decrees

1819; repressive laws in the german states limiting freedom of speech and dissemination of liberal ideas in the universities issued by metternich after the karl sand incident. they dissolved the burschenschaften and provided for university inspectors and press censors.

final act

1820; an act that limited the subjects that the constitutional chambers of bavaria, wurttemberg, and baden could discuss. also asserted the right of the monarchs to resist the demands of constitutionalists.

secret police

secret forces in the german states that harassed potential dissidents, which included almost anyone who sought even moderate social or political change

corn laws

laws that maintained high prices for domestically produced grain by levying import duties on foreign grain. intended to protect and help the aristocracy that owned large amounts of farming land. repealed in 1846

combination acts

1799; an act that outlawed workers' organizations and unions

william cobbett

an english politician and writer of a radical newspaper known as the political registrar

political registrar

a radical newspaper from william cobbett; demanded political change in the response to the upper class policies and postwar economic downturn

henry "orator" hunt

one of multiple radical leaders considered to be a demagogue that seduced the people away from allegiance to their natural leaders

coercion acts of march 1817

acts that temporarily suspended habeas corpus and extended existing laws against seditious gatherings

peterloo massacre

august 16, 1819; a mass meeting of people who desired reform occurred in the industrial city of manchester. royal troops and the local militia were on hand to ensure order. as speeches were about to begin, a local magistrate ordered the militia to move into the audience, resulting in panic and death. at least eleven people were killed and many more were injured

six acts

passed by parliament in 1819 to support the local officials who caused the peterloo massacre: (1) forbade large, unauthorized public meetings; (2) raised the fines for seditious libel; (3) sped up the trials of political agitators; (4) increased newspaper taxes; (5) prohibited the training of armed groups; and (6) allowed local officials to search homes in certain disturbed counties.

cato street conspiracy

under the guidance of a man named arthur thistlewood, a group of extreme radicals plotted to blow up the entire British cabinet. the plot was foiled and the leaders were arrested and tried, which ended up with five of them being hung. helped to discredit the movement for parliamentary reform.

bourbon restoration

period where the monarchy was restored in france; louis xviii, brother of louis xvi, was able to take the throne after the abdication of napoleon in 1814.

louis xviii

the new king during the bourbon restoration. he was the brother of louis xvi and the former count of provence. he had become a political realist during his exile and agreed to become a constitutional monarch, but only under a constitution of his own (the charter).

the charter (french)

the constitution created under louis xviii. provided for a hereditary monarchy and a bicameral legislature (the chamber of peers, appointed by the monarch, and the chamber of deputies, appointed by the upper chamber.) guaranteed most of the rights the declaration of the rights of man and citizen had enumerated. most importantly, it promised not to challenge the property rights of the current owners of land that had been confiscated from aristocrats and the church.

ultra-royalists

a french political faction under the bourbon restoration; usually members of the nobility of high society that supported catholicism as the only legal religion of france, traditional hierarchy between classes, and census suffrage against the popular will.

count of artois

louis xviii's brother and heir; incredibly counterrevolutionary and an ultra-royalist

duke of berri

the son of the count of artois and second in line to the throne after his father. he was murdered by a lone assassin; his assassination allowed ultra-royalists to persuade louis xviii into passing new repressive measures. new electoral laws gave wealthy electors two votes. press censorship was imposed, and people suspected of dangerous political activity were made subject to easy arrest.

ferdinand vii

a spanish bourbon king placed on the throne after napoleon's downfall. he had promised to govern according to a written constitution but ignored his pledge once he was in power and led alone until a revolt broke out

congress of troppau

austria hoped to dominate the peninsula to provide a buffer against the spread of revolution, and turned to prussia and russia for support. along with unofficial delegations from britain and france, they met at the here in 1820 and issued the protocol of troppau

protocol of troppau

issued at the congress of troppau by the holy alliance in 1820; this declaration asserted that stable governments might intervene to restore order in countries experiencing revolutions, though britain didn't agree with this

george canning

the new foreign minister of great britain; much less sympathetic to metternich's goals than castlereagh

verona congress

1823; where britain withdrew from continental affairs and austria, prussia, and russia agreed to support french intervention in spain.

spanish revolution

outbroke because of ferdinand vii breaking his pledge to rule with a constitution. suppressed by the french army in a few months, though french troops stayed for years to support ferdinand's rule

greek revolution

a rebellion that attracted the support and participation of many famous writers. liberals throughout europe imagined that ancient greek democracy was being reborn

philhellenic

means "pro-greek"; describes societies were founded in nearly every european country during the early nineteenth century

the eastern question

what should the european powers do about the ottoman inability to ensure political and administrative stability in its possessions in and around the eastern mediterranean?

first treaty of london

russia, britain, and france concluded that an independent greece would benefit their interests and would not threaten their domestic security. in 1827, they signed that demanded turkish recognition of greek independence, and sent a joint fleet to support the greek revolt.

treaty of adrianople

an 1828 treaty that gave russia control of territory in present-day romania from the ottoman empire. also stipulated that the turks would allow britain, france, and russia to decide the future of greece.

second treaty of london

a second treaty that declared greece an independent nation

otto i

the son of the king of bavaria. in 1832, he was chosen to be the first king of the new greek kingdom

kara george

a serbian leader that led a guerilla war against the ottomans from 1804 to 1813

ottoman sultan

the ruler of the ottoman empire; formally granted serbia independence in the 1830s

alexander i

tsar of russia after the french revolution; after briefly entertaining enlightened ideas, he permanently turned away from reform and took the lead in suppressing liberalism and nationalism.

northern society

a moderate russian secret society; they favored constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom but wanted to protect the interests of the aristocracy.

southern society

a radical secret russian society led by an officer named pestel; advocated for representative government and the abolition of serfdom

constantine

the brother of alexander i and second in line to the throne, as well as the commander of russian forces in occupied poland. although he was next in line for the throne, he had married a catholic woman who refused to convert. this caused him to renounce his claim to the throne, which he was more than willing to do.

nicholas i

the younger brother of alexander i and constantine; he became the russian tsar after alexander's death. he was less popular than constantine and regarded as more conservative. he knew that reform was necessary to grow but was scared of change

decembrist revolt

on december 26, 1825, the russian army was to take the oath of allegiance to nicholas i. though most regiments took the oath, the moscow regiment marched into saint petersburg and refused to swear allegiance, instead calling for a constitution and constantine as tsar. peaceful attempts to resolve the situation failed, and nicholas ordered artillery to attack the insurgents, ending with the deaths of more than sixty people. this was the first rebellion in modern russian history whose instigators had had specific political goals.

official nationality

nicholas i's program for the russian orthodox church to provide basis for morality, education, and intellectual life. this program alienated serious russian intellectuals from the tsarist government.

count s. s. uvarov

the russian minister of education who presided over the official nationality program

orthodoxy, autocracy, nationalism

slogan of nicholas i and the official nationality program; three pillars of russian absolutism

orthodoxy

the russian church was to provide the basis for morality, education, and intellectual life. the church controlled the schools and universities; young russians were taught to accept their place in life and to spurn social mobility.

autocracy

the unrestrained power of the tsar as the only authority that could hold the vast expanse of russia and its peoples together

russian nationalism

through the glorification of russian nationality, russians were urged to see their religion, language, and customs as a source of perennial wisdom that separated them from the moral corruption and political turmoil of the west.

organic statute

a declaration that claimed poland was to be an integral part of the russian empire (to try and prevent polish revolution and the polish diet deposing nicholas as the king of poland). although it guaranteed certain polish liberties, the russian government systematically ignored them in practice.

charles x

count of artois; succeeded louis xviii. as the leader of the ultraroyalist faction, he was a firm believer in rule by divine right. he indemnified aristocrats who had lost their lands in the revolution, restored the rule of primogeniture (whereby only the eldest son of an aristocrat inherited the family domains), and enacted a law that punished sacrilege with imprisonment or death to support the catholic church. brought instability to france.

prince de polignac

the ultraroyalist cabinet minister appointed by charles x. he sent a naval expedition against algeria to establish a french empire in north africa

four ordinances

charles x's last act in an attempt to gain more power; restricted freedom of the press, dissolved the recently elected chamber of deputies (as they held a liberal majority), limited the franchise to the wealthiest people in the country, and called for new elections. these acts provoked swift and decisive popular reaction. the workers of paris erected barricades in the streets. the king called out troops, and although more than 1,800 people died during the ensuing battles, the army was not able to gain control of paris. this led to charles x's abdication to england

louis philippe

the duke d'orleans and the new king of france appointed by the chamber of deputies for their new constitutional monarchy. his succession to the throne ended the rule of the bourbon dynasty.

july monarchy

the name given to the new constitutional monarchy under louis philippe. louis philipe was called the "king of the french" rather than "king of france." the tricolor flag of the revolution replaced the white flag of the bourbons, the new constitution was regarded as a right of the people rather than as a concession of the monarch, catholicism became the religion of a majority of the people rather than "the official religion," the new government was strongly anticlerical, censorship was abolished, the franchise became wider but remained restricted, and the king had to cooperate with the chamber of deputies; he could not dispense with laws on his own authority. the goverment ignored their demands and the plight of the working class, and when they revolted they were often killed, wounded, and crushed by government troops. saw the construction of major capital intensive projects, such as roads, canals, and railways, though little was done about poverty in the country.

algeria

france quickly set out to conquer and administer the interior of this country in north africa. by the 1850s, france had extended their rule as far as the northern sahara desert, giving france a vast new empire. the french government came to regard this nation as not a colony but an integral part of france itself.

lord palmerston

the british foreign minister. in 1830, he persuaded representatives of the powers in london to recognize belgium as an independent and neutral state.

prince leopold of saxe-coburg

became king of belgium in 1831; married to the daughter of louis philippe

convention of 1839

treaty that guaranteed belgian neutrality, which remained an article of faith in european international relations for almost a century

house of commons

the first and lower legislative body of british parliament whose members are elected

house of lords

the upper legislative body of british parliament; meant for nobles and bishops

tories

members of the conservative english party

whigs

members of the british reforming and constitutional party that sought the supremacy of parliament

george iv

king of britain and successor of george iii; for most of his reign, lord liverpool controlled the government.

william iv

succeeded george iv as king of england; his ascension initiated parliamentary election and reform

great reform bill of 1832

a limited reform of the british house of commons and an expansion of the electorate to include a wider variety of the propertied classes. it laid the groundwork for further orderly reforms within the british constitutional system and was the result of the forces of conservatism and reform.

lord liverpool

tory minister of great britain; despite being conservatives, his government believed that they had to accommodate itself to the changing social and economic life of the nation. they favored greater economic freedom and repealed the combination acts that had prohibited labor organizations.

act of union

an act passed because of william pitt the younger's fear that irish nationalists might rebel against the english. ireland now sent a hundred members to the house of commons, though only protestant irishmen could be elected to represent the overwhelmingly catholic nation.

daniel o'connell

an irish nationalist leader that led the catholic association. he was elected to parliament despite being catholic, and his presence helped to push forward the catholic emancipation act.

catholic association

an organization created by irish nationalists and led by daniel o'connell to agitate for catholic emancipation

catholic emancipation act

allowed for roman catholics to now become members of parliament. this measure ended the anglican monopoly of british political life.

earl grey

the leader of the whigs asked by william iv to form a government after the wellington ministry fell

rotten boroughs

depopulated areas of england that still sent representatives to parliament.

creole elites

merchants, landowners, and professional people of spanish descent born in the colonies. they led strong movements against spain and portugal to gain rights equal to those of peninsulares. they believed that any drive for political independence should not cause social disruption or the loss of their own privileges.

peninsulares

white people born in spain that lived in south america. they had political patronage, including appointments in the colonial government, church, and army; this elicited jealousy from creole elites.

juntas

to protect their interests and to seize the opportunity to direct their own political destiny, creole elites created political committees that claimed the right to govern different regions of latin america. these groups ended the privileges of the peninsulares, whose welfare had always depended on the favors of the spanish crown. creoles now took over positions in the government and army.

jose de san martin

the leading general of the argentinian forces and liberator of latin america. he led an army in a march over the andes mountains and occupied santiago in chile. from there, he organized a fleet that carried his army to peru. the next year, he drove royalist forces from lima and became protector of peru.

simon bolivar

a venezuelan liberator of south america and a firm advocate of both independence and a republic. he was able to capture a large amount of south america and become president.

battle of ayacucho

where the liberating south american army crushed the main spanish royalist forces. this battle marked the end of spain's effort to retain its south american empire.

father hidalgo

a revolutionary creole priest who issued a call for rebellion to the indigenous people in his parish. he set forth a program of social reform, including hints of changes in landholding. he soon stood at the head of a loosely organized group of followers who captured several major cities and committed many atrocities along with the royalist army that opposed them. he was eventually captured and executed.

agustin de iturbide

a former royalist general that many conservative mexicans rallied behind. he declared mexico independent of spain and shortly after became emperor.

king joao vi

a portuguese king who ruled over brazil for a short period of time before returning to portugal. he made some minor reforms and granted brazil independence but never accomplished the actual change people asked of him.