Studied by 1 person
Ch. 14 (Learning, Motivation, and Emotion), Ch. 15 (The Self), Identity and intersectionality, Ch. 17 (Personality Disorders and Beyond), Ch. 16 (Relationships and Business)
Learning-based approaches
-behaviorism and social learning theories
-idea that stimuli that occur close together will elicit the same response AND behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes tend to be repeated
Behaviorism
study of how a person's individual behavior is a direct result of their environment, particularly the rewards and punishments that the environment contains
functional analysis
goal of behaviorism
determining how behavior is a function of one's environment
Habituation
a decrease in responsiveness with each repeated exposure to something
Consequences of habituation
-become numb to violence displayed in media
-exposure related to more aggression ad less empathy and prosociality
affective forcasting
predicting how you will feel in the future
-normally not actually true/accurate
classical conditioning
(aka respondant conditioning) the kind of learning in which an unconditioned response that is naturally elicited by one stimulus becomes elicited also by a new, conditioned stimulus
--> the conditioned response is essentially passive with no impact of its own
learned helplessness
belief that nothing one does really matters
-happens when events seem to occur randomly and cannot be predicted
-creates anxiety/depression
operant conditioning
the process of learning in which an organism's behavior is shaped by the effect of the behavior on the environment
(aka when the animal learns to operate on the world in such a way as to change it to the animal's knowledge)
Thorndike's Puzzle Box
Edward Thorndike put cats in this box and observed how long it took to escape
--> treats were nearby, cats learned quickly
Reinforcement
in operant conditioning, a good result that makes a behavior more likely
Punishment
in operant conditioning, a result that makes a behavior less likely
shaping
raising the criterion for reward until the desired behavior is produced
social learning theory
uses expectancy (the degree to which an individual believes a behavior will probably attain its goal)
-Kohlers chimps developed insight from solving puzzles (understanding the situation)
shortcomings of behaviorism
ignores motivation, thought, and cognition
primarily based on animal reasearch
ignores social dimension of learning
organisms are treated as essentially passive
locus of control
how much you think your actions will determine the consequences in your life
Rotter's theory of behaviorism
locus of control; focused on how people decide what to do based on their understanding of the likely consequences of their actions
self-efficacy
(Bandura) the expectation that one can accomplish something successfully
--> affects persistance
self-concept
your knowledge and opinion of yourself (ex. attractiveness, ability)
goal of psychotherapy
improve self-efficacy
how to change behavior
change efficacy expectations by watching someone else accomplish the behavior (modeling) or forcing yourself to do the behavior
observational learning
humans learn nearly everything by observation; do yourself vs. watch someone else do it
motivation
What do you want? How will you try to get it?
- goals and strategies
motivation goals
the end that one desires
- being aware of long term goals can help a person make better decisions and organize short term goals
- drive behavior by influencing what you attend to, think about, and do
short term goal
needed to achieve long term goals
long term goal
goals that you plan to accomplish at a later point, longer timespan
idiographic goals
goals that are unique to the individuals who pursue them
current concerns
an ongoing motivation that persists in the mind until the goal is either attained or abandoned
personal projects
the efforts put into goals
personal strivings
long-term goals that can organize broad areas of life
properties of ideographic goals
conscious at least some of the time
describe thoughts and behaviors aimed at fairly spesific outcomes
can change over time
assumed to function independantly
limitation of ideographic goals
goals are not coherently organized
nomothetic goals
the relatively small number of essential motivations that almost everyone pursues
(work and social interaction)
McCellend's three primary motivations
needs for achievement,
affiliation/intimacy
powerde
Emmons's five
enjoyment
self-assertion
esteem
interpersonal success
avoidance of negative affect
judgement goals
seeking to judge or validate an attribute in oneself
development goals
desire to improve oneself
mastery orientation
from developmental goals; trying harder after failing
helplessness
from judgment goals; giving up after failing
entity theories
beliefs that personal qualities are unchangeable; lead to judgment goals
incremental theories
beliefs that personal qualities can change with time and experience; lead to developmental goals
Motivation Strategies
defensive pessimism (vs. optimism)
defensive pessimism
assume the worst will happen
optimisim
assuming that the best will happen
emotion
type of procedural knowledge, a set of mental and physical procedures (how body and mind respond)
Stages of Emotional Experience
1. appraisal: judging a stimulus as emotionally relevant
2. physical responses, facial expressions, nonverbal behavior
3. motives: to perform a behavior based on the emotion
--> can happen at the same time or diff order, often physical first
six core emotions
happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, disgust
--> same meaning across cultures
emotions circumplex
Functions of emotions
indv. differences in emotional life
emotional experience: extraverts tend to experience MORE POS. emotions than introverts
preference for emotions: people differ in their DESIRE to feel specific emotions
affect intensity: some people experience emotions MORE STRONGLY than others
rate of change: higher rates are associated with being described by others as FEARFUL and HOSTILE
emotional intelligence
accurately perceiving emotions in oneself and others and controlling and regulating one's own emotions
Alexithymia
having so little emotional awareness that one is virtually unable to think or talk about their own feelings
cognitive control
using rational thinking to control how one feels and responds to the way one feels
--> used to control and regulate emotions
cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS)
if... then contingencies (actions triggered by particular stimulus situations)
behavioral signature (a person's pattern of if... then contingencies; similar to S-R conception of personality
Beliefs, emotions, and action tendencies (BEATS)
people have basic needs that combine to produce emergent needs, from which the final need for self-coherence or meaning in life emerges
motivations --> goals --> BEATS
basic needs
trust, control, self-esteem
emergent needs
predictability, acceptance, competence
personality as a verb
-Personality is something a person does
-thinking, wanting, feeling
-learning, motivation, emotion
the I (ontological self)
a somewhat mysterious entity that does the observing and describing; experiences life and makes decisions; people differ in level of self-awareness
contents and purposes of the self
influences behavior
organizes memories, impressions, and judgements of others
MOST IMPRTNT: organizes knowledge
psychological self
our abilities and personalities; the central aspect of the self
jobs and purposes of the self
self regulation
info processing filter
help us relate to others
identity
self-regulation
ability to restrain impulses and keep focused on long-term goals
information-processing filter
helps us to remember the information that really matters to us and keep it organized
two types of self knowledge
declarative and procedural knowledge
declarative knowledge
the facts and impressions that we consciously know and can describe
procedural knowledge
knowledge expressed through actions rather than words
relational self
patterns of social skills and styles relating to others
implicit self
unconscious self-knowledge we are not aware of these characterstics, but they influence our behavior
declarative self
all of your conscious knowledge or opinions about your own personality traits (includes overall opinion and a more detailed opinion about your traits and abilities)
self-esteem
your overall opinion about whether you are good or bad, worthy or unworthy, or somewhere in between
low self esteem in related to
advantagesare the reverse of the disadvantages reflection of success and acceptance
how to increase self-esteem
accomplish important tasks
gender differences in self-esteem
men have higher rates diff. increased between 1970s-1990s, declined since
self-schema
all of one’s ideas about the self, organized into a coherent system
-where the declaratice self resides
-can be assessed with S data or B data
long-term memory (LTM)
permanent memory storage elaboration is useful for moving info to the LTM (thinking deeply about something)
self-reference effect
the enhancement of long-term memory that comes from thinking of how info relates to the self → self-schema is rich, well-developed, and often used
possible selves
the images we have, or can construct, of the other possible ways we might be
what do possible selves influence?
-may affect our goals
-evidence that is affects mate preference
-want future selves that fulfill the needs of self-esteem, competence, and meaning
-people want to fulfill needs for similar future selves
self-discepancy
people have two kinds of desired selves, and the difference between these and one’s determines how people feel
ideal self
-view of what you could be at your best
-focused on the pursuit of pleasure and rewards
-discrepancy leads to depression because of disappointment at failing to achieve rewards
ought self
-view of what you should be
-focused on the purpose of pleasure and rewards
-discrepancy leads to anxiety because of fear of not avoiding punishment
procedural self
patterns of behavior that are characteristic of an individual and the behavior through which people express who they are (unique aspects of what you do, ways of doing things, procedures, NOT conscious, learned by doing)
rational-self schema
self-knowledge based on past experiences that directs how we relate to the important people in our lives
implicit selves
self-relevant patterns that are not readily accessible to consciousness → includes rational self, measure with IAT, implicit self-esteem
implications of implicit selves
we have attitudes and feelings about many things of which we are not entirely aware, and this influences our emotions and behaviors
implicit association test (IAT)
a measure of reaction time, in which participants are asked to push one of two buttons as quickly as possible, depending on which of four concepts is displayed to them
acquiring and changing procedural knowledge
-practice some desired aspect of the self (ex. being social) and feedback (ex. therapist)
-does not require a teacher who is good at what is being taught (ex. therapist does not have to be extraverted)
-acquire experiences of what you want your new procedural self to be
How many selves?
many selves are theorized to exist
Problems with many selves theory
a unitary and consistent sense of self and congruence are associated with mental health
how do we decide which self to be?
where does one stop fractioning the self?
working self-concept
the view that the self is continuously changing
--> strongly influenced by who the person is with
active self
depends on where you are and who you are with; the experience of the self may change across situations
congruence
acting in accordance with one's personality traits
self-concept differentiation
seeing oneself as having different personalities in different contexts
--> too much is associated with poor psychological adjustment
the really real self
really only one self; feeling of being the same person persists across the entire life span
--> even with brain damage, memory loss, and mental illness, the self persists
identity
an individuals sense of self
2 ways identity is defined
1. a set of physical, psychological, and interpersonal characteristics that is not wholly shared with any other person
2. a range of affiliations (ex. ethnicity, gender) and social rules
CONSISTENCY
many different identities
examples include: child, sibling, parent, friend, gender, race, ethnicity, place of origin, age, student, sexual orientation, social class, occupation, relationship, et.
intersectional identities
Crenshaw 1989; acknowledge complexity of belonging simultaneously to several groups; problems facing women of colour, diff races, diff nationalities, immigrants
interseconality
a framework for conceptualizing a person, group of people, or social problem as affected by a number of potential discriminations and disadvantages
Note 
Flashcard (38)