Ap Psych Development Review

Stability and Change

The concept that some psychological traits remain stable over time while others change.

Nature vs. Nurture

The debate regarding the relative contributions of genetics and environment to human development.

Continuous and Discontinuous Stages of Development

Continuous development suggests gradual changes, while discontinuous development implies distinct stages.

Cross-sectional Research

A research method that compares individuals of different ages at one point in time.

Longitudinal Research

A research method that follows the same individuals over a period of time to observe changes.

Teratogens

Substances that can cause birth defects or developmental problems in a fetus.

Maternal Illnesses

Health conditions in a mother that can affect fetal development.

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

A condition resulting from alcohol exposure during pregnancy, leading to physical and cognitive impairments.

Genetic Mutations

Changes in the DNA sequence that can lead to developmental disorders or diseases.

Rooting

A reflex in infants that causes them to turn their head toward a stimulus when their cheek is stroked.

Visual Cliff

An experimental setup used to test depth perception in infants.

Critical Periods

Specific times in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily acquired.

Imprinting

A rapid, critical form of learning where young animals (and by extension, humans) form a strong, lasting attachment to a specific individual or object, like a parent or mother-figure.

Habituation

A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure.

Maturation

The process of development that is guided by genetic factors and biological growth.

Adolescence

The developmental stage between childhood and adulthood, marked by physical and psychological changes.

Puberty

The period during which adolescents reach sexual maturity and become capable of reproduction.

Primary Sex Characteristics

The physical features directly involved in reproduction, such as the reproductive organs.

Secondary Sex Characteristics

Physical features that develop during puberty but are not directly involved in reproduction, such as breast development and body hair.

Menarche

The first occurrence of menstruation in females.

Spermarche

The first occurrence of ejaculation in males.

Menopause

The time in a woman's life when menstrual cycles cease, marking the end of reproductive capability.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in gaining knowledge and comprehension, including thinking, knowing, and remembering.

Jean Piaget

A developmental psychologist known for his theory of cognitive development in children.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information.

Event script

A cognitive structure that guides the sequence of actions in a specific context or event.

Assimilation

The process of integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

The process of modifying existing schemas to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget's first stage of cognitive development, from birth to about 2 years, where infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget's second stage of cognitive development, from about 2 to 7 years, characterized by symbolic thinking and egocentrism.

Conservation

The understanding that certain properties of objects remain the same despite changes in their form or appearance.

Reversibility

The ability to recognize that actions can be reversed, leading to the original state.

Egocentrism

The inability to differentiate between one's own perspective and that of others, common in young children.

Theory of Mind

The ability to understand that others have thoughts, beliefs, and perspectives different from one's own.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget's third stage of cognitive development, from about 7 to 11 years, where children begin to think logically about concrete events.

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget's fourth stage of cognitive development, beginning around age 12, characterized by abstract and logical thinking.

Lev Vygotsky

A developmental psychologist known for his sociocultural theory of cognitive development.

Scaffold

Support provided to a learner that is gradually removed as they become more competent.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The range of tasks that a child can perform with guidance but not yet independently.

Crystallized Intelligence

The ability to use learned knowledge and experience, which tends to remain stable or increase with age.

Fluid Intelligence

The capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge.

Dementia

A decline in cognitive function that interferes with daily life, often associated with aging.

Language

A system of communication that uses symbols, sounds, and gestures to convey meaning.

Phonemes

The smallest units of sound in a language that can distinguish meaning.

Morphemes

The smallest units of meaning in a language, which can be words or parts of words.

Semantics

The study of meaning in language, including the meanings of words and phrases.

Grammar

The set of rules that govern the structure of sentences in a language.

Syntax

The arrangement of words and phrases to create well-formed sentences in a language.

Universal Grammar (UG)

The theory that the ability to acquire language is innate to humans and that all languages share a common structure.

Cooing

The early stage of language development in infants, characterized by the production of soft vowel sounds.

Babbling

The stage of language development where infants produce repetitive consonant-vowel combinations.

One-word stage

A stage in language development where children communicate using single words.

Two-word stage

A stage in language development where children begin to combine two words to form simple sentences.

Telegraphic Speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram, using mostly nouns and verbs.

Overgeneralization

The application of grammatical rules in cases where they do not apply, often seen in language development.

Linguistic Determinism

The hypothesis that language determines the way we think and perceive the world.

Linguistic Relativity

The idea that the structure of a language affects its speakers' worldview and cognition.

Ecological Systems Theory

A framework for understanding human development through the interaction of various environmental systems.

Microsystem

The immediate environment in which a person interacts, such as family and school.

Mesosystem

The interconnections between different microsystems, such as the relationship between home and school.

Exosystem

The larger social system that indirectly influences an individual, such as a parent's workplace.

Macrosystem

The overarching cultural and societal influences that shape an individual's development.

Chronosystem

The dimension of time in ecological systems theory, reflecting the influence of life transitions and historical events.

Attachment

The emotional bond between a child and a caregiver, which influences social and emotional development.

Authoritarian Parenting

A parenting style characterized by high demands and low responsiveness, often enforcing strict rules.

Authoritative Parenting

A parenting style that is both demanding and responsive, promoting independence while maintaining limits.

Permissive Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and high responsiveness, allowing considerable freedom.

Neglectful Parenting

A parenting style characterized by low demands and low responsiveness, leading to a lack of involvement.

Secure Attachment

A strong emotional bond characterized by trust and a sense of safety in the caregiver's presence.

Insecure Attachment

An emotional bond characterized by anxiety or avoidance in relationships with caregivers.

Avoidant Attachment

A type of insecure attachment where a child avoids or ignores the caregiver.

Anxious Attachment

A type of insecure attachment where a child is overly dependent on the caregiver and experiences anxiety when separated.

Disorganized Attachment

A type of insecure attachment characterized by a lack of clear attachment behavior, often due to inconsistent caregiving.

Strange Situation

A standardized procedure used to assess attachment styles in infants through a series of separations and reunions.

Separation Anxiety

Distress experienced by children when separated from their primary caregiver.

Stranger Anxiety

Fear or anxiety that infants display when encountering unfamiliar people.

Basic Trust

The belief that the world is a safe and reliable place, typically developed in infancy.

Temperament

An individual's innate personality traits and behavioral tendencies.

Self-concept

An individual's perception of themselves, including beliefs about their abilities and characteristics.

Parallel Play

A type of play where children play alongside each other but do not interact directly.

Pretend Play

A form of play where children use imagination to create scenarios and roles.

Imaginary Audience

The belief in adolescence that one is the center of attention and that others are constantly watching.

Personal Fable

The belief that one's experiences are unique and that they are invulnerable to harm, common in adolescents.

Social Clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

Erik Erikson's Psychosocial Stages of Development

A theory proposing eight stages of psychosocial development, each characterized by a specific conflict.

Trust vs Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory, where infants learn to trust caregivers for basic needs.

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory, where toddlers learn to exercise independence and develop self-control.

Initiative vs Guilt

The third stage of Erikson's theory, where children assert control and power over their environment.

Industry vs Inferiority

The fourth stage of Erikson's theory, where children learn to cope with new social and academic demands.

Identity vs Role Confusion

The fifth stage of Erikson's theory, where adolescents explore their identity and sense of self.

Intimacy vs Isolation

The sixth stage of Erikson's theory, where young adults form intimate relationships or face isolation.

Generativity vs Stagnation

The seventh stage of Erikson's theory, where adults strive to create or nurture things that will outlast them.

Integrity vs Despair

The eighth stage of Erikson's theory, where older adults reflect on their life and either feel a sense of fulfillment or regret.

Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events occurring during childhood that can have lasting effects on health and well-being.

Identity

The understanding and expression of who one is, including personal and social identity.

Social Identity

The part of an individual's self-concept derived from their membership in social groups.

Achievement of Identity

The successful integration of various aspects of self into a coherent identity.

Diffusion of Identity

A state where an individual has not yet made commitments to any particular identity.

Foreclosure of Identity

A state where an individual has made commitments without exploring options, often based on parental expectations.