Geography edexcel b, paper 2

Biological weathering

Plant roots, animals digging, trampling over

Chemical weathering

Acidic pH of rain

Physical/mechanical weathering

Freeze thaw weathering, water enters crack in rock and freezes, expanding gap, it melts again, more water enters, freezes, process repeats until crack is big enough for rock to break off

Mass movement, slumps

Saturated rocks slide down a curved slip plane

Mass movement, rockfall

Fragments of rock eroded and fall away

Mass movement, landslides

Large blocks of rock weakened by weathering slides downhill

Traction

Large pebbles roll along bed

Saltation

Small pebbles bounce along bed

Suspension

Fine sediments held in water as it flows

Solution

Fine sediments dissolved in water as it flows

How are stacks and stumps formed?

1. Waves hitting cliff face causes cracks to appear.

2. Waves enter crack and erode rock inside, causing fissure to expand into a sea cave.

3. Cave expands to form arch -> headland is very unstable.

4. Top of cliff falls away, leaving a stack.

5. Erosion causes stack to become a stump.

How are wave-cut platforms formed?

1. Weathering weakens top of cliff.

2. Sea erodes base through abrasion, forms a wave-cut notch.

3. Cliff collapses again and again, continues to retreat.

4. Backwash carries rubble out to sea, forms wave-cut platform.

How are V-shaped valleys formed?

Rock eroded and cut through by river

How are U-shaped valleys formed?

Past glacial ice erodes and flattens the bottom of the valley

How are interlocking spurs formed?

River cuts through soft rock and around hard rock

How does longshore drift deposit sediments on coasts?

1. Waves approach coast at an angle.

2. Sediments pushed up beach by swash.

3. Sediments dragged out by backwash.

4. Sediments are moved along the beach.

What waves cause erosion?

Destructive, when the backswash is greater than the swash

What waves cause deposition?

Constructive, when the swash is greater than the backswash

What is sedimentary rock?

Compressed sediments, e.g. limestone

What is igneous rock?

Formed by cooled magma, e.g. granite

What is metamorphic rock?

Formed by existing rocks under heat and pressure, e.g. slate

How has human activity affect landscape?

Agriculture, forestry, settlement

What is an example of an upland area in the U.K.?

Lake District, experienced historical glaciation, features: scree slopes, landslides, mountainous/rockfalls

What is an example of an lowland area in the U.K.?

The Weald Basin, features: undulating hills/flat, scarp and vale topography

Describe how human activity has affected the physical landscape in the Yorkshire Dales?

Dispersed settlement, isolated farms, valleys and hills, livestock farming

Describe how human activity has affected the physical landscape in East Anglia?

Flat and low-lying, arable (crop) farming, settlements are communal villages

Describe the Burgess Model

Spatial arrangement of city's structure:

1. Central Business District: offices, expensive housing, shops

2. Factories/industry

3. Working class housings (inner suburbs)

4. Middle class housing (inner suburbs)

5. Commuter zone (outer suburbs, rural urban fringe)

Describe what happens to discharge as you go down the river profile

Increases

Features found in river upper course

Waterfalls, u-shaped valleys, v-shaped valleys, interlocking spurs

Features found in river middle course

Meanders, ox-bow lakes

Features found in river lower course

Deltas, levees, floodplains

Describe what happens to discharge as you go down the river velocity

Increases

Describe what happens to gradient as you go down the river profile

Steep to shallow

Describe what happens to channel shape as you go down the river profile

Narrow and steep sides to flat floor and gently sloping sides

Describe what happens to valley profile as you go down the river profile

Steep sides to flat, gently sloping sides

Describe what happens to sediment size as you go down the river profile

Decreases (fine particles)

Groynes

Hard engineering method, reduces impact of erosion but exposes other areas of coastline

Sea wall

Hard engineering, protects cliffs and buildings, but is expensive

Beach nourishment

Soft engineering, replaces sand and reduces wave energy (dissipates it) and maintains tourism, but is expensive

Beach reshaping

Sand dunes absorb and dissipate wave energy, but easily damaged and short lifespan

Do-Nothing

Integrated coastal zone management, cheap but homes and land are lost

Hold the line

Integrated coastal zone management, shoreline maintained but is expensive

Strategic realignment

Integrated coastal zone management, people and businesses move inland

Confluence

Where two or more tributaries meet

How are levees formed?

1. Wide, flat valley is flooded

2. Heaviest material deposited as river overloads

3. Overtime, sediments builds up in layers

How are meanders formed?

River winds around areas of hard rock and through soft rock, thalweg causes lateral erosion of bank

How are ox-bow lakes formed?

1. River winds around areas of hard rock, and through soft rock

2. Meander neck narrows due to further erosion at bends

3. Neck breached when river floods

4. Oxbow lake formed as material is deposited

Describe cross-section of a meander

Slip-off slope caused by deposition in inside bend, river cliff caused by vertical erosion on outside bend, meanders formed by lateral erosion

6 challenges London faces

Transport, affordable housing, energy efficiency, employments, green spaces, waste

Sustainable development factors

Society, economy, environment

Greenfield sites

Areas of land (usually agricultural or amenity land) which are being considered for urban development

Cornubation

Where city has expanded outwards and absorbed smaller settlements

The green belt

Area of open land around city to prevent urban sprawl/expansion

Site

The location of a place

Situation

the location of a place relative to other places, connectivity

Old economy

Traditional primary industry based economy

New/knowledge economy

Service sector economy

Footloose

Companies not tied to a specific location

Central Business Districts (CBD)

Centre of city typically, lots of offices and new economy

Globalisation

The growing integration of the world's economies

Regeneration

Redevelopment of former industrial areas or housing to improve them

Brownfield sites

Former industrial areas that have been developed before

Gentrification

Occupied and renewed areas by middle classes

Studentification

Parts of cities where students live in large numbers

Name an area found in the rural-urban fringe

Terling, rural but within commuter zone so is accessible, growth caused by counter-urbanisation

What waves are depositional landforms caused by?

Constructive

Concordant coasts

Alternating strata of hard and soft rock, parallel to the sea

Discordant coasts

Alternating strata of hard and soft rock, perpendicular to the sea

What are features of discordant coasts?

Headlands, bays, e.g. South-West Ireland

What are features of concordant coasts?

Coves, e.g. Lulworth Cove

How are waterfalls formed?

1. Band of hard rock lies over less resistant rock.

2. Softer rock is eroded underneath, undercuts hard rock above it, and creates a plunge pool (abrasion and hydraulic action).

3. Overhang eventually collapses and process repeats.

4. Waterfall retreats upstream.

Abrasion

Rock against rock

Attrition

Waves cause rocks to grind against one another and become smoother

Hydraulic action

Water and air breaks rocks apart

Solution

Some rocks dissolve in water

4 factors that affect urban land use

Accessibility, planning regulations, cost, availability

5 stages of city development

1. Urbanisation

2. Suburbanisation

3. Deindustrialisation

4. Counter-urbanisation

5. Regeneration

Define urbanisation

An increase in the proportion of people living in urban areas

Define suburbanisation

Movement of people to edges of cities

Define deindustrialisation

The decline of manufacturing industry in an area

What do the bars in a storm hydrograph represent?

Predication

What does the line in a storm hydrograph represent?

Discharge

What was the rivers fieldwork enquiry question?

How and why does drainage basin and channel characteristics influence flood risks for people and property along Debden Brook?

What was the urban fieldwork enquiry question?

How and why does inequality and sustainability vary between Whetstone and North Finchley?

Embankments and levées

Hard engineering, use natural materials (usually) so blends in with surrounding, but may burst and cause widespread flooding

Flood walls

Hard engineering, requires minimal maintenance, but blocks view of river

Dams and reservoirs

Hard engineering, able to regulate and control flow of water, expensive to build and disrupts fish migration routes

Flood barriers

Hard engineering, can be moved to where needed and quickly put up, don't provide long-lasting protection

River restoration

Soft engineering, can reduce flooding downstream but changes local land

Channelisation

Hard engineering, changing shape of river to reduce risk of flood, is expensive

Floodplain retention

Soft engineering, provides somewhere for floodwater to go, but restricts economic development

Afforestation

Soft engineering, increased filtration so reduces flooding, but not suitable for all locations

Somerset river management schemes

Channelisation and levees

What increases flood risks?

Surface run-off, impermeable surfaces, poor drain age systems, confluence and river capacity, land use

How are bars formed?

Longshore drift, bar of sand grows across moths of bay, shallow lagoon forms behind bar

How are tombolos formed?

Spit that is connected to an island

How are spits formed?

1. Longshore drift carries sand to river estuary

2. Flow of river halts drift so sand is deposited

3. River erodes so deposition causes hooked ends

4. Water behind spit is protected from tide so remains calm and forms a salt marsh

Define site

Where it's located

Define situation

Relationship to other places/things near to it