power and sovereignty case studies

john mearsheimer

theory of offensive realism- the idea that the anarchic nature of the international system is responsible for the promotion of aggressive state behaviour in international politics; asserts that the international system provides great powers with strong incentive to resort to offensive action to maintain their security and ensure their survival

steven lukes

three dimensions of power- decision-making power, which is the most public, and focuses through policy preferences revealed through political action; non-decision-making-power, which is what sets the agenda in political debates and makes some issues unacceptable for debate in public forums; ideological power, which allows one to influence people’s wishes and thoughts, including making them want things that are opposed to their own self-interest

effective uses of hard power

1- Ukraine has been denied its request for fast-tracked membership with NATO because of the requirement for invoking Article 5, given Russia’s repeated nuclear threats (eval. with continued supply of aid bc of mutually assured destruction)

2- Iran entered into the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action in 2015 due to international economic sanctions for nuclear (eval. that it is short term bc the US has withdrawn and Iran has started pursuing nuclear again)

effective uses of soft power

1- King Charles state visit to Germany in March 2022 to repair UK-EU relations led to UK rejoining the EU Horizon program in September 2022 (eval. wit backlash from Cambridge’s visit t Jamaica in the same year)

2- India has leveraged cultural appeal through Bollywood etc. and its positive perception as a democracy led to US support for an international waiver from nuclear sanctions in the 2000s (eval. that increasing military and economic capability are also essential)

limitations of hard power

1- UNSC resolutions such as 7018 and 2270 have sanctioned NK for continuing nuclear weapons development, which have been ineffective due to lack of international economic engagement

2- March 2003 invasion of Iraq was successful in the short term by removing Saddam Hussein from power, but the democratic government that was elected in 2006 was subsequently destabilised and lost control of Iraq during the 2014 ISIS offensive

limitations of soft power

Despite large brand presence and prevalence of American media in China, anti-American propaganda has mitigated the effectiveness of Americanisation in China; countries have to accept soft power influence for it to be effective

sources of sovereignty

external recognition- Kosovo seceded from Serbia in 2008 and declared independence, but is not recognised by many countries such as China, India and Russia, leading to issues with the postal service, banking system, and exporting

economic independence- China has invested over $13bn into Ethiopia in the last two decades and Ethiopia is now in significant debt to China; Ethiopia sovereignty limited and Chinese influence furthered

the public (internal recognition)- 2017 Catalan independence referendum result denied by the Spanish government as a result of low voter turnout, with a lack of support from the international community to recognise its independence

challenges to state sovereignty

economic globalisation- China has invested over $13bn into Ethiopia in the last two decades and Ethiopia is now in significant debt; Ethiopia economic decisions limited by debt repayment and Chinese influence furthered

humanitarian intervention- UNSC resolution 1973 authorised NATO intervention in Libya in 2011, which destroyed Libya’s domestic military capability, thus eroding its state sovereignty

legitimacy

in a democracy- Trump questioning of the legitimacy of the election result in 2020 led to the storming of the Capitol on January 6th and pushing of the narrative of a ‘stolen election’, showing how the main source of legitimacy in a democracy is the people

in a dictatorship- can be argued that the CCP experiences a form of legitimacy called performance legitimacy, where the public remains loyal and nationalistic if the party guarantees economic growth and improved living standards (eval. that it is suppression of opposition)

failed legitimacy - Bashir al-Assad’s economic reforms towards free market capitalism that benefitted the corrupt and the suppression of freedom of speech led to high unemployment and subpar economic performance; as a result, civil war broke out in 2011

un security council

limits sovereignty → UNSC resolution 1973 authorised NATO intervention in Libya in 2011 after the brutal shutdown of pro-democracy protests by Muammar Al-Gaddafi

limits sovereignty → UNSC resolution 2231 in 2015 affirmed the Iran Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action and provided a framework for lifting nuclear-related sanctions in return for accepting restrictions on its nuclear program

doesn’t limit sovereignty → UNSC resolution 2118 mandated that Syria hand over all chemical weapons to Russia, after the chemical weapons attack on citizens in 2013 (Russia had opposed military intervention in its long-term ally)

un general assembly

doesn’t limit sovereignty → UNGA voted in favour of Russia withdrawing from Ukraine in 2022 (though allies like China abstained), however Russia ignored this ruling, as it has historically criticised the Western focus of the UN

limits sovereignty → in May 2019 UNGA voted against British presence in the Chagos Islands and UK opened negotiations for its return in 2022 (shows GA has more symbolic than practical power)

other intergovernmental organisations

ASEAN → refused to intervene during the 2017 Rohingya Muslim genocide in Myanmar due to principles of non-interference and respect for sovereignty; however successfully lobbied UN to deny international recognition of Vietnam’s regime in Cambodia in 1978-1991

EU → European Central Bank imposition of fiscal surveillance in Greece after debt bailouts in early 2010s that included cuts to state salaries which led to high unemployment and emigration of skilled workers; UK vote to leave EU in 2016 demonstrates that sovereignty remains (although still affected by trade restrictions)

non-governmental organisations

confucius institutes → UCD president requested an extra €2.5m from Irish govt to complete construction to avoid ‘diplomatic incident’ with Beijing; tied to an organisation known to suppress free speech

amnesty international → publishes annual country reports on human rights and campaigns in countries; more structurally successful in liberal democracies (e.g. successful 2023 campaign for Switzerland to change the definition of rape in national legislation) but only achieves small change, if at all, in authoritarian regimes (e.g. release of Zahra Sedighi-Hamadani in Iran)

multinational corporations

Russian interference in the 2016 US election utilised social media companies such as Twitter to post misinformation, discouraging Democratic voters from voting and encouraging people to go out and vote for Trump

In recent years, the National Labour Relations Board has brought 75 complaints against Starbucks that accuse it of more than 1,000 illegal actions such as firing pro-union baristas; however, little to no punishment has been brought on the company for fear of withdrawal and the loss of its benefits for the economy

In 2021, the US banned imports and use of Huawei communications equipment due to security concerns and links to China; shows the ultimate power of governments over MNCs, but also how they can be leveraged to infringe upon national sovereignty

social and resistance movements

non-violent social movement → mass marches in the UK from October 2023 to protests the UK’s role in Israel’s campaign in Gaza (as of yet, the UK government has not stopped arms sales to Israel)

non-violent resistance movement → Arab Spring protests in Egypt in early 2011 (millions of people protesting President Mubarak); on Feb 11th of that year, the president resigned

violent resistance movement → Revolutionary Armed Forces of Columbia positioned itself as a communist group fighting for the rights of the rural poor against perceived government oppression; implemented social programs in rural Colombia; peace treaty signed in 2016 which included a minimum number of seats for FARC members in parliament

political parties

Republican Party (United States)

Chinese Communist Party

Liberal Democrats (UK) → first past the post vs. proportional representation (2024 general election)

informal forums

G7 → could be argued to be effective as countries are ‘like-minded’ but doesn’t include all of the world’s major economic powers and the decisions it makes are non-binding

G20 → has a balance between historic economic powers and emerging economic powers, however this diversity can lead to gridlock in decision making

treaty

Montreal Protocol → entered into force in Jan 1989 and has been ratifies by all 197 UN member states; established a Multilateral Fund to help developing countries meet their targets and used a monitoring body focused on non-punitive strategies to ensure countries comply; China and India both reluctant to ratify because of potential infringements on state sovereignty but eventually did

strategic alliance and collective security

NATO → the US’ power within the organisation comes with the tacit understanding that Europe will follow the US’ lead on foreign policy (e.g. withdrawal from Afghanistan), though this could change with Trump move towards isolationism and reluctance to provide security guarantees; Russia also feels NATO expansion in Europe to be an infringement on its sphere of political influence