cognition

memory

The retention of information or experience over time as the result of three key processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

getting info into the memory

automatic encoding

tendency of certain kinds of information to enter long-term memory with little or no effortful encoding

effortful encoding

requires attention and conscious effort

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

imagery

mental imagery, using images to help remember info

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

acronyms

abbreviations that stand in for common phrases

method of loci

A mnemonic technique that involves associating items on a list with a sequence of familiar physical locations

Pegword system

a memory technique in which to-be-remembered items are associated with pegwords, each of which rhymes with a different number between one and ten

context dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular state of mind is more easily recalled when in that same state of mind.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

depth of processing

the idea that information that is thought about at a deeper level is better remembered

dual encoding

combining different types of encoding aids in memory

Ebbinghaus forgetting curve

if a memory is never used or recalled, then it will decay quickly over time, and then level off

massed practice

cramming

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information (testing yourself)

george miller

made the information processing model

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting usually 0.3 seconds

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 2 or 3

sensory memory purpose

to take in all the information and filter it

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items for thirty seconds, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

magic number of items we can remember

7

maintenance rehearsal

A system for remembering involving repeating information to oneself without attempting to find meaning in it

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare"

episodic memory

the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at a particular time and place

semantic memory

memory for knowledge about the world

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection

procedural memory

a type of implicit memory that involves motor skills and behavioral habits

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

information processing model

A cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved.

Working Memory Model

Only difference is sensory memory transfers to two different short term memory types - where its then combined (phonological/sound loop and visuospatial/sight loop combine to central executive)

retrospective memory

Short term memory and Long term memory - things that are stored for future use

prospective memory

remembering to do things in the future

Memory Hierarchies

Systems in which concepts are arranged from more general to more specific

semantic network

consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts

tip of the tongue phenomenon

experience of knowing that we know something but being unable to access it, you got stuck elsewhere in your semantic network

schemas

Preexisting mental concept or framework (your "idea" of what something should be or do)

memory neurotransmitter

acetylcholine

Long-Term Potentiation

Neural basis of memory - connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation (i.e. more firing)

Storage of most memory is in the

hippocampus

emotional memory is stored in the

amygdala

Encoding and retrieval is stored in the

frontal lobe

skills are stored in the

cerebellum

retrieval

The process of taking information out of storage

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

primacy effect

tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well

recency effect

tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well

Recall vs. Recognition

fill in the blank tests vs. multiple-choice tests

encoding specificity principle

the idea that cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping us recall it

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event (adrenaline and cortisol help to solidify memories with acetylcholine)

repressed memories

memories that have been removed from conscious awareness

Memories become less accurate and more distorted over time

APA says memories before age 3 are unreliable (hippocampus not developed yet)

encoding failure

failure to process information into memory

proactive interference

old memories interfere with new memories

retroactive interference

new memories interfere with old memories

framing

Providing guiding questions "framing the question" leads to biased answers

misinformation effect

The distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation

Elizabeth Loftus

Her research on memory construction and the misinformation effect created doubts about the accuracy of eye-witness testimony

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories from our past

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined

Concepts

Mental categories used to group objects, events, and characteristics

Classical model of Concepts

All instances of a concept share defining properties

prototype model

A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example—a prototype—for that category.

Metacognition

thinking about thinking

subgoaling

setting intermediate goals or defining intermediate problems in order to be in a better position for reaching a final goal or solution

trial and error

A problem-solving strategy that involves attempting different solutions and eliminating those that do not work.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic

Shortcut strategy ("rule of thumb") that suggests, but does not guarantee, a solution

representative heuristic

a mental shortcut whereby people classify something according to how similar it is to a typical case

Factors that Influence Rep. Heuristic

ignore probabilities, Ignore sample sizes, Misconceptions of chance

regression toward the mean

the tendency for extremes of unusual scores to fall back (regress) toward their average with a higher sample

Gambler's Fallacy

the belief that the odds of a chance event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

Factors that influence the Availability Heuristic

illusory correlation, bias due to retrievability

Fixation

inability to see a problem from a new perspective

Mental set

tendency to approach a problem in one particular way

functional fixedness

think of things only in terms of their usual functions

divergent thinking

question can have multiple responses, encourages creativity (and directly opposes functional fixedness)

convergent thinking

limits creativity, question invites only one answer

belief bias

The tendency of one's preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions.

belief perseverance

Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

confirmation bias

Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence

inductive reasoning

Start with data - then form a general theory

Deductive reasoning

Start with an idea (theory) then look for data to support it