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preferential looking
a research technique that involves giving an infant a choice of what object to look at
when do babies achieve adult-like acuity?
6 months after birth
what do newborn's reflexes consist of?
grasping
sucking
rooting
swallowing
tonic neck reflex
cephalocaudal rule
the "top-to-bottom" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet (significant changes occur in the brain and the head before changes happen in the extremities)
proximodistal rule
the "inside-to-outside" rule that describes the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the center to the periphery (significant development occurs first at centrally located features, such as the heart or the lungs, before occurring at more peripheral locations, including the hands or fingers)
When are teratogens most harmful?
the period of embryo
The period of fetus
From 9 weeks after conception to birth, classified as a period of growth and minor refinements. The fetus gains weight and moves into the head down position that is preferred for child birth. fetal brains develop sulci and gyri
constructivist
children are active contributors to their own learning, that is, they construct their own knowledge
dialectical
the growth of cognitive structures occurs when individuals encounter conflicting information that alters their existing perspectives on the world
what are the four stages of children's cognitive development?
sensorimotor stage
pre-operational stage
concrete operational stage
formal operational stage
theory of mind
the understanding that human behavior is guided by mental representations, and that these mental representations differ across individuals
what task is used to measure theory of mind?
false belief task
attachment
the emotional bond between an infant and the primary caregiver
Mary Main identified three attachment styles in adults that parallel those observed in infants. What are they?
secure or autonomous, anxious or preoccupied, and avoidant or dismissive
attachment style can predict what outcomes in adulthood?
academic achievement
emotional health
relationship quality
self esteem
positivity bias
young children almost always describe themselves positively
young children describe themselves...
in physical terms and almost always positively
why does positivity bias decline quickly at school age?
social comparison begins
cognitive skills increase (perspective-taking increases)
school begins objective evaluations
rank order stability
children with lower self-esteem tend to have lower self-esteem as adults
identity formation
the chief task of adolescence
achievements in adolescence
abstract thinking and self-socialization
challenges in adolescence
personal fable and imaginary audience
identity confusion
an incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self that often occurs in Erikson's stage of identity versus identity confusion
identity foreclosure
premature commitment to an identity without adequate consideration of other options
negative identity
identity that stands in opposition to others/social norms
Which of the two declines more quickly? Episodic or semantic memory?
Episodic memory
Why do older adults feel happier?
They tend to remember positive stimuli better than negative stimuli
Their amygdalae are more activated by positive emotions than negative ones
Why do older adults tend to value having close social groups?
it is related to their shorter futures
Binet-Simon intelligence test consists of...
puzzles
object-naming
counting
IQ scores positively correlated with protective factors. What are they?
high parental involvements, stimulating physical environment etc
IQ scores negatively correlated with risk factors. What are they?
low socio-economic status, low maternal education etc
three of the eight types of intelligence in Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences are tested in standard IQ tests. What are they?
linguistic intelligence
logical-math intelligence
spatial intelligence
Evidence for Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences
the areas of intelligence have different developmental patterns
damage to a specific brian area may impact only one type of intelligence and not other
What does emotional intelligence consist of?
the ability to reason about emotions and to use emotions to enhance reasoning
description of one's own emotions
management of one's own emotions
detection of other's emotions
the two dimensions of emotions
valence (positive or negative)
psychological arousal (severity)
two major neural structures related to emotion
the amygdala and prefrontal cortex
the universality hypothesis
facial expressions are evolved in order to aid in survival and therefore may be somewhat universal in the human population
four strategies to hide our emotions
intensification
de-intensification
masking
neutralizing
reliable muscles
facial muscles that are resistant to conscious change
duration of sincere facial gesture
0.5 to 5 seconds
motivation
the psychological reason for producing an action
hedonic principle
all motivation extends from attraction to pleasure and avoidance of pain
drives & incentives
drives are basic needs for nuitrition and sex and incentives are ways we satisfy the drives
three psychological dimensions of motivation
intrinsic vs extrinsic
conscious vs unconscious
approach vs avoidance
three major stages of prenatal development
the period of the zygote, the period of the embryo and the period of the fetus
the primary characteristic of the period of the zygote
rapid cell division
ectopic pregnancy
a pregnancy that results from the implantation of the blastocyst into one of the fallopian tubes instead of the uterine wall
why are ectopic pregnancies dangerous?
Whereas the uterus is a muscle that can expand (as the zygote grows) and contract (to expel the fetus during childbirth), the fallopian tubes do not have this ability. For this reason, pregnant women may have to terminate their pregnancy to avoid the possibility of a ruptured fallopian tube, which can result in death.
monozygotic twins
Also known as "identical" twins, monozygotic twins have 100% shared genetics. During conception, one egg was fertilized by one sperm and then splits into two separate cells with identical DNA. Identical twins are always the same sex.
dizygotic twins
Also known as "fraternal" twins or non-identical twins. In relatively rare cases a woman's ovaries will release more than one egg at a time. Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are each fertilized by separate sperm cells. The level of shared genetics is approximately 50% and is similar to any siblings born apart from the same parents. Fraternal twins may be of different sexes.
assimilation
the incorporation of new information into existing cognitive structures
accommodation
the creation of new cognitive structures to house new information
equilibration
states in which cognitive structures agree with external realities
disequilibration
states in which cognitive structures do not agree with external realities. when this occurs, cognitive structures must be modified through assimilation or accommodation
primary circular reactions
in the second sub stage of sensorimotor development, infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions on their own bodies
secondary circular reactions
in the third sub stage of sensorimotor development, infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions outside their own bodies
tertiary circular reactions
in the fifth substage of sensorimotor development, infants learn about the world through their activities as "little scientists" they actively explore the world using different combinations of items to see how these changes affect their observed outcomes