1. altered cells and tissues

patho

what is the level of organization?

cells → tissues → organs → organ systems

what is the smallest unit of the body?

cells

what are the cellular components?

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, cytoskeleton, and organelles

what is the plasma membrane?

• semi-permeable barrier

• separated intercellular components from the extracellular environment

what are the types of organelles?

• endoplasmic reticulum

• golgi apparatus

• lysosomes

• peroxisomes

• proteases

• mitochondria

endoplasmic reticulum

• a complex network of tubules, producing proteins and fats

• important in the regulation of ions within the cell

what are the types of endoplasmic reticulum?

rough and smooth

rough endoplasmic reticulum

• contains ribosomes bound to its membrane that synthesize protein

• production of lysosomal enzymes (acid hydrolases)

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

• synthesis of lipids, lipoproteins, and steroid hormones

• regulation of intracellular calcium

golgi apparatus

• membranous structure

• prepares substances produced by the endoplasmic reticulum for secretion out of the cell

lysosome

• small sac surrounded by membrane

• digests cellular debris with hydrolytic enzymes

• important in the metabolism of particular substances

peroxisome

• membrane-enclosed sac smaller than lysosome

• contains enzymes called oxidases that neutralize free radicals (unstable molecules with unpaired electrons)

• promotes survival of the cell by neutralizing harmful substances potentially damaging to the cell

mitochondrion

• site of aerobic (oxygen dependent) cellular respiration

• principal producer of cellular energy source, adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

• contains the cytochrome enzymes of terminal electron transport necessary for ATP production

what are the cellular functions?

1. transportation

2. ingestion

3. secretion

4. respiration

5. communication

6. reproduction

what are the three forms of transport mechanisms?

passive transport, active transport, and facilitated transport

what is passive transport?

• no energy

• from high to low (e.g., diffusion → particle movement, osmosis → water movement)

what is facilitated transport?

• still passive → no energy

• needs transport protein

what is active transport?

• requires energy

• movement against the grain

what is ingestion?

ingesting substances into the cytoplasm

what are the types of cellular ingestion?

endocytosis, pinocytosis, and phagocytosis

what is endocytosis?

used to transport large substances into cells

what is pinocytosis?

contents of small liquid-containing vesicles

what is phagocytosis?

large particles such as cells, bacteria, and cell components

secretion

cellular products packaged into vesicles and transported out of the cell by exocytosis

respiration

series of metabolic processes that transforms fuel molecules into energy and waste products

what are the types of respiration?

aerobic and anaerobic

communication

signals between cells controlling cellular function and behavior

• messages communicated by receptor-ligand binding

• feedback mechanisms prevent cellular damage

how do cells reproduce?

cellular division under genetic control (mitosis and meiosis) — cellular differentiation directs the development of specific cell type

how do cells respond to stress?

• protective to prevent cell/tissue harm

• cells undergo adaptation to respond to stressors

• cell injury.death when adaption fails

• once stressor is removed, adaption stops

• cells adapt to increased work demands by changing in size, number, form

atrophy

decrease in cell size to become more efficient

hypertrophy

increase in cell size and tissue mass

hyperplasia

increase in number of cells in an organ or tissue in cells capable of mitotic division

metaplasia

replacement of adult cells

dysplasia

deranged cell growth of a specific tissue that results in cells that vary in size, shape and organization

what are the cellular mechanisms of death?

apoptosis (programmed) and necrosis (not programmed)

what are the causes of cellular injury?

physical, mechanical, thermal, and chemical

what is cerebral atrophy? (pathophysiology)

• reduction in the size of the cells in the cerebrum of the brain

• progressive reduction in the size of the neurons

what are the risk factors of cerebral atrophy?

• reduced stimulation

• mechanical injury

• traumatic brain injury

• alzheimer’s

what are the signs and symptoms of cerebral atrophy?

• focal → localized to a particular region

• global → affecting the entire brain

what is the diagnostic criteria of cerebral atrophy?

• early identification

• health history (onset, duration, and severity)

• neurologic examination

• imagining studies

what is the treatment of cerebral atrophy?

• prevention

• interruption of injury process

• slowing course of disease

what is cardiac hypertrophy? (pathophysiology)

increased cardiac muscle mass

what is the etiology of cardiac hypertrophy?

• excessive cardiac workload

• increased functional demand

• inherited genetic trait

what are the types of cardiac hypertrophy?

primary and secondary

what is primary cardiac hypertrophy?

inherited non-sex linked genetic trait

what is secondary cardiac hypertrophy?

• due to an underlaying condition increasing left ventricular workload

• increased in left ventricular muscle mass results from an increase in myocardial cell size

what are the signs and symptoms of cardiac hypertrophy?

• variable (mild to severe)

• shortness of breath

• chest pain

• syncope (fainting)

• impaired cardiac function

what are the risk factors of cardiac hypertrophy?

• genetic testing

• hypertension

• reduced exercise tolerance

• ventricular arrhythmia

• heart murmur

what is the nonpharmacologic treatment of cardiac hypertrophy?

activity restriction and surgical methods

how does pharmacologic treatment assist in patients with cardiac hypertrophy?

• drugs that relax the ventricles

• drugs that reduce the workload of the heart → decrease the pressure that the heart must pump against

what is acromegaly? (pathophysiology)

• condition of cellular hyperplasia

• results from excessive hormonal stimulation

what hormone is in excess in patients with acromegaly?

pituitary growth hormone and liver insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1)

what is the difference between acromegaly and gigantism?

• acromegaly → occurs in adults after the bone growth plates close (slow)

• gigantism → occurs in children before the bone growth plates close (fast)

what does acromegaly lead to?

excessive growth in bones, cartilage, soft tissues, and organs

what are the signs and symptoms of acromegaly?

• soft tissue swelling

• altered facial features

• pain and numbness in hands

• voice deepening

• snoring

• skin problems

• altered reproductive function

what is the diagnostic criteria of acromegaly?

• history and physical examination

• laboratory analysis

  • glucose tolerance test

  • growth hormone

  • IGF-1 (insulin-like growth factor-1)

what is the pharmacological treatment of acromegaly?

drugs to reduce growth hormone secretion

what is the nonpharmacological treatment of acromegaly?

radiation therapy to promote death in growth hormone secreting cells

what is the surgical treatment of acromegaly?

removal of tumor (adenoma) causing hypersecretion of growth hormone

what is the pathophysiology of cervical metaplasia?

changing of cell types as a response to environmental stressors and exposure to estrogen

what is the pathophysiology of cervical dysplasia?

abnormal growth and disordered differentiation in differentiation in dividing cells

what is the similar/combined pathophysiology surrounding cervical metaplasia and dysplasia?

cellular adaptation of the squamous and columnar epithelial cells in the transformation zone in the cervix

what are the signs and symptoms of cervical metaplasia and dysplasia?

there are no known signs and symptoms of cervical metaplasia and dysplasia

what are the risk factors of cervical metaplasia and dysplasia?

• early onset sexual activity

• multiple partners (> 3)

• exposure to human papillomavirus (HPV)

• smoking

what are the diagnostic criteria?

• history and physical examination

• screening tests (microscopic examination of transformation zone cells (pap test) and hpv screening)

• diagnostic tests (biopsy of cervical tissue for microscopic examination (colposcopy))

what are the treatment options for cervical metaplasia and dysplasia?

• ablation (removal of superficial cells)

  • cryosurgery

  • laser ablation

  • cold coagulation

  • electrocoagulation diathermy ablation

• surgical excision

human papillomavirus (HPV)

• enters host cell

• changes DNA of cell

• high risk strains are oncogenic