Psychology of Intelligence: Key Concepts, Historical Perspectives, and Measurement Techniques

Intelligence

There is no single, universally accepted definition of intelligence. It is a construct, which is a concept created to explain a pattern of behavior, not a tangible thing that can be touched. Its definition is deeply influenced by social and cultural values.

Cultural Bias

A core challenge in intelligence testing where traditional IQ tests heavily rely on skills needed to succeed in a Western society. It may be impossible to create a test that is completely free of this bias. A more suitable approach is to create culture fair tests with less language dependency or measures that are tailored to a specific culture.

Historical Origins of Intelligence Testing

Early work on intelligence can be traced to Sir Francis Galton and Alfred Binet.

Sir Francis Galton

A key figure in the history of intelligence testing who focused on genetics and eugenics. He believed that 'genius' was hereditary and ran in families. His tests, which measured physical and sensory abilities, had poor predictive power but started a tradition of controversy. His work was misused to promote racism and eugenics in South Africa.

Alfred Binet

Tasked with developing an objective intelligence test for school children, he created the first workable intelligence test in 1905. His approach was to test large numbers of children to establish average scores (norms) for each age group, then compare a child's performance to those norms. He proposed the concept of mental age (MA).

William Stern

Expanded Binet's concept of mental age to a relative intelligence score, the Intelligence Quotient (IQ). The formula is IQ = (Mental Age / Chronological Age) x 100.

David Wechsler

Noted that the Stanford-Binet test relied too much on verbal skills and was not suitable for adults. He developed his own tests (e.g., WAIS, WISC) that measure both verbal and nonverbal abilities and provide a Full Scale IQ, Verbal Scale IQ, and Performance Scale IQ.

Psychometric Approach

An approach to intelligence that attempts to map the structure of the intellect and identify the mental competencies underlying test performance. This approach uses factor analysis to reduce a large number of measures into a smaller number of clusters or factors.

'g' Factor

Charles Spearman's theory that intellectual performance is determined by a general intelligence factor ('g') and specific abilities ('s'). He argued that 'g' is the core of intelligence and a strong predictor of academic and job performance.

Crystallized Intelligence

Raymond Cattell's theory that breaks down Spearman's 'g' into two subcomponents.

Fluid intelligence (gf)

The ability to reason abstractly, think logically, and solve novel problems.

Crystallized intelligence (gc)

Factual knowledge and learned skills, such as vocabulary and arithmetic.

Cognitive Process Approach

An approach to intelligence that explores the specific information-processing and cognitive processes that underlie intellectual ability, focusing on how people think.

Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Robert Sternberg's theory that divides intelligence into three forms.

Analytical Intelligence

Academic problem-solving skills measured by traditional intelligence tests.

Practical Intelligence

Skills needed to cope with everyday demands and manage oneself and others.

Creative Intelligence

The mental skills needed to deal adaptively with novel problems.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner's theory that proposes human intelligence is not a single entity but is composed of eight or more distinct intelligences, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, and musical.

Emotional Intelligence

A concept that involves the ability to read others' emotions accurately, respond appropriately, motivate oneself, be aware of and regulate one's own emotions.

Reliability

The consistency of a test; if the test is repeated, it should yield consistent results.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure. A key challenge is ensuring that test items correctly sample the targeted intellectual ability.

Static vs. Dynamic testing

Two different testing conditions.

Static Testing

The traditional approach that emphasizes similarity in testing conditions for all participants.

Dynamic Testing

The standard test is followed by an interaction where the examiner provides guided feedback, and observes how the person utilizes that information to improve their performance.

Factors Influencing Intelligence

Intelligence can be influenced by a variety of factors, including genetics, gender, family environment, school environment, and societal factors like poverty and race/ethnicity.

Heritability of Intelligence

Genetic factors can account for one-half to two-thirds of the variation in IQ. The greater the genetic relatedness, the stronger the correlation between IQ scores.

Schooling and Intelligence

Attending school makes children smarter. Research shows that children from low socioeconomic status families have a drop in achievement scores during the summer break, while those from high socioeconomic status families maintain or slightly increase their scores.