Reconstructive Memory and Schema

Define

Reconstructive memory refers to the process by which memories are actively rebuilt rather than passively retrieved. According to this theory, memory is not an exact replication of events but a reconstruction influenced by existing knowledge, beliefs, and expectations. This reconstruction often involves filling in gaps or altering details to create a coherent and meaningful narrative. Bartlett's work demonstrated that memory is affected by schemas—cognitive frameworks that organize and interpret information.

A schema is a mental representation or framework based on prior knowledge and experiences. Schemas allow individuals to make sense of new information by integrating it with existing knowledge, but they can also lead to memory distortions when new information does not align with prior expectations. In Bartlett's study, cultural schemas played a key role in shaping how participants reconstructed a story.

Aim

The aim of Bartlett's study was to investigate how cultural background and prior knowledge affect memory recall. Bartlett wanted to examine whether unfamiliar elements in a story would lead to distortions when recalled and whether these distortions were influenced by the participants' cultural schemas. He hypothesized that memory is reconstructive, meaning that people do not simply recall events but reconstruct them based on their prior expectations and existing knowledge. Specifically, he predicted that unfamiliar stories would be altered during recall to make them more consistent with the participants' cultural understanding.

Method

Bartlett conducted a laboratory experiment to study how participants would recall an unfamiliar story over time. He used a Native American legend, The War of the Ghosts, which was culturally foreign to the participants, who were British. The story included unfamiliar names, concepts, and narrative structures that did not align with the participants' cultural expectations. This made the story ideal for investigating how cultural schemas influence memory reconstruction.

Participants were divided into two groups. In the repeated reproduction condition, participants were asked to recall the story after a short interval and then repeat their recall at intervals ranging from days to years. This method allowed Bartlett to observe how their memory changed over time. In the serial reproduction condition, participants recalled the story and then passed their version on to another person, who then recalled and retold the story to the next person, creating a chain of retellings. Both methods were designed to examine how the story was modified during the recall process and whether the changes were consistent with cultural schemas.

Findings

Bartlett found that participants in both conditions consistently distorted the story as they tried to recall it. These distortions followed three key patterns.

The first pattern was assimilation, where participants unconsciously altered details to make the story more consistent with their own cultural norms and expectations. For example, unfamiliar elements of the story, such as names or supernatural occurrences, were replaced with details that were more familiar to British culture. The second pattern was leveling, in which participants omitted information that they perceived as unimportant. This simplification process led to the story becoming shorter with each retelling. The third pattern was sharpening, where participants reorganized the story, changing the order of events and adding details or emotions to make the narrative more coherent and logical within their cultural framework.

Although the participants generally remembered the main themes of the story, they consistently altered unfamiliar elements to fit their cultural schemas. This resulted in a coherent but distorted version of the original story.

Conclusion

Bartlett concluded that memory is not a passive process but an active and reconstructive one. He proposed that individuals do not recall events exactly as they occurred; instead, they reconstruct memories based on their prior knowledge, cultural background, and existing schemas. This process allows individuals to fill in gaps and create meaning from ambiguous or unfamiliar information. Bartlett's findings supported his theory of reconstructive memory, which argues that memories are reconstructions influenced by personal and cultural factors, not precise copies of events.

The study highlights the role of schemas in shaping memory recall. Cultural schemas in particular play a significant role in influencing how individuals remember and retell stories, especially when the information does not align with their prior expectations. Bartlett's research remains foundational in cognitive psychology, demonstrating that memory is dynamic and shaped by the interplay between incoming information and existing knowledge.