the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation
2
New cards
structuralism
an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the structural elements of the human mind
3
New cards
functionalism
a school of psychology that focused on how our mental and behavioral processes function-how they enable us to adapt, survive and flourish
4
New cards
experimental psychology
the study of behavior and thinking using the (scientific) experimental method
5
New cards
behaviorism
the view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most research psychologists today agree with (1) but not with (2)
6
New cards
humanistic psychology
historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual's potential for personal growth
7
New cards
psychology
the science of behavior and mental processes
8
New cards
nature-nurture issue
the longstanding controversy over the relative contributions that genes and experience make to the development of psychological traits and behaviors. Today's science sees traits and behaviors arising from the interaction of nature and nurture
9
New cards
natural selection
the principle that, among the range of inherited trait variations, those contributing to reproduction and survival with most likely be passed on to succeeding generations
10
New cards
level of analysis
the differing complementary views, from biological to psychological to social-cultural, for analyzing any given phenomenon
11
New cards
biopsychosocial approach
an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis
12
New cards
biological psychology
a branch of psychology that studies the links between biological (including neuroscience and behavior genetics) and psychological processes
13
New cards
evolutionary psychology
the study of the roots of behavior and mental processes using the principles of natural selection
14
New cards
psychodynamic psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how unconscious drives and conflicts influence behavior, and uses that information to treat people with psychological disorders
15
New cards
behavioral psychology
the scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning
16
New cards
cognitive psychology
the scientific study of all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicatin
17
New cards
social-cultural psychology
the study of how situations and cultures affect our behavior and thinking
18
New cards
psychometrics
the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities, attitudes, and traits
19
New cards
basic research
pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base
20
New cards
developmental psychology
the scientific study of physical, cognitive, and social change throughout the life span
21
New cards
educational psychology
the study of how psychological processes affect and can enhance teaching and learning
22
New cards
personality psychology
the study of an individual's characteristic pattern of thinking, feeling and acting
23
New cards
social psychology
the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another
24
New cards
applied research
scientific study that aims to solve practical problems
25
New cards
industrial-organizational (I/O) psychology
the application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces
26
New cards
human factors psychology
the study of how people and machines interact and the design of safe and easily used machines and environments
27
New cards
counseling psychology
a branch of psychology that assists people with problems in living (often related to school, work, or marriage) and in achieving greater well-being
28
New cards
clinical psychology
a branch of psychology that studies, assesses, and treats people with psychological disorders
29
New cards
psychiatry
a branch of medicine dealing with psychological disorders; practiced by physicians who often provide medical treatments as well as psychological therapy
30
New cards
SQ3R Method
method which includes survey, questions, read, recite and review reading passage
31
New cards
testing effect
enhanced memory after retrieving (for a test), rather than simply rereading, information
32
New cards
community psychology
a branch of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environments and how social institutions affect individuals and groups
33
New cards
positive psychology
the scientific study of optimal human functioning; aims to discover and promote strengths and virtues that enable individuals and communities to thrive
34
New cards
cognitive neuroscience
the interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with cognition (including perception, thinking, memory, and language)
35
New cards
hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it
36
New cards
double blind procedure
An experimental procedure in which both the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the research participants have received the treatment or a placebo. Commonly used in drug-evaluation studies
37
New cards
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated--the variable whose effect is being studied
38
New cards
dependent variables
The outcome factor -- the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable
39
New cards
mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
40
New cards
mean
The arithmetic average of a distribution, obtaining by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores
41
New cards
median
The middle score in a distribution--half the scores are above it and half are below it
42
New cards
standard deviations
A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score
43
New cards
random assignment
Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance ,thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups
44
New cards
random sampling
A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion
45
New cards
scatter plot
A graphed cluster of dots, each of which represents the values of two variables. The slope of the points suggests the direction of the relationship between the two variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation
46
New cards
illusory correlation
The perception of a relationship where none exists
47
New cards
case study
An observation technique in which one person is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
48
New cards
naturalistic observation
Observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
49
New cards
correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and thus of how well either factor predicts the other. The correlation coefficient is the mathematical expression of the relationship, ranging from -1 to +1
50
New cards
experiment
A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effects on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant variable
51
New cards
replication
Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with different participants in different situations, to see whether the basic finding extends to other participants and circumstances
52
New cards
statistical significance
A statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance
53
New cards
operational definition
A statement of the procedures used to define research variables.
54
New cards
critical thinking
thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
55
New cards
theory
an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes and predicts observations
56
New cards
hypothesis
a testable prediction, often implied by a theory
57
New cards
population
all the cases in a group, from which samples may be drawn for a study
58
New cards
correlation coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)
59
New cards
placebo
experimental results caused by expectations alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition, which the recipient assumes is an active agent.
60
New cards
placebo effect
the phenomenon in which the expectations of the participants in a study can influence their behavior
61
New cards
experimental group
in an experiment, the group that is exposed to the treatment, that is, to one version of the independent variable.
62
New cards
control group
in an experiment, the group that is not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment.
63
New cards
confounding variable
a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
64
New cards
range
the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
65
New cards
normal curve/distribution
a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean (68% fall within one standard deviation of it) and fewer near the extremes
66
New cards
inferential statistics
numerical methods used to determine whether research data support a hypothesis or whether results were due to chance
67
New cards
culture
the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a large group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next
68
New cards
informed consent
an ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate
69
New cards
debriefing
the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants
70
New cards
longitudinal study
researchers follow the same subjects over an extended period of time.
71
New cards
confirmation bias
experimenter might consciously or unconsciously look to confirm what they already believe about their hypothesis
72
New cards
descriptive statistics
describe the basic features of the data in a study. They provide simple summaries about the sample and the measures.
73
New cards
variance
measures how far a data set is spread out. The technical definition is "The average of the squared differences from the mean."
74
New cards
survey
a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
75
New cards
sampling bias
a flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample
76
New cards
skewed distribution
a representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value
77
New cards
histogram
a bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
78
New cards
validity
the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
79
New cards
gestalt
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
80
New cards
introspection
the process of looking inward in an attempt to directly observe one’s own psychological processes.
81
New cards
behavior genetics
the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
82
New cards
Wilhelm Wundt
Set up the first psychology laboratory in an apartment near the university at Leipzig, Germany in 1879, cited as the beginning of scientific psychology
83
New cards
G. Stanley Hall
Known as the founder of educational psychology and child psychology, shaped adolescent themes in psychology.
84
New cards
Edward Bradford Titchener
he used introspection to search for the mind’s structural elements
85
New cards
William James
wrote the Principles of Psychology and is the founder of functionalism. He created the James
86
New cards
Charles Darwin
Developed theories of evolution and natural selection, inspire the evolutionary approach in psychology.
87
New cards
Mary Whiton Calkins
The first female president of the American Psychological Association, created self-psychology, which emphasized a self-evaluation of one’s personal experiences.
88
New cards
Margaret Floy Washburn
The first woman granted a Ph.D. in psychology.
89
New cards
John B. Watson
The father of behaviorism, famous for the controversial Little Albert experiment.
90
New cards
B.F. Skinner
A behaviorist psychologist, created the theory of operant conditioning where he studied how consequences shape behavior.
91
New cards
Sigmund Freud
the father of psychoanalysis
92
New cards
Carl Rogers
A humanist psychologist who created client-centered therapy where the therapist guides personal growth.
93
New cards
Abraham Maslow
developed a hierarchy of needs, which includes physiological needs (i.e. food, water, shelter), safety, belonging and love, esteem, and self
94
New cards
Ivan Pavlov
Known for his work in classical conditioning
95
New cards
Jean Piaget
Created stages of development for children including the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operation phases.
96
New cards
Dorothea Dix
An advocate for the mentally ill by highlighting the deplorable conditions in asylums, created the first mental hospitals in America.
97
New cards
Gestalt psychology
the study of how our mind pieces together various pieces of information to create a meaningful whole
98
New cards
psychoanalysis
look at the influence the unconscious has on personality, completely based on Freud's theory of personality
99
New cards
Participant bias
a tendency for research participants to respond in a certain way because they know they are being observed or they believe they know what the researcher wants.