Period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response
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Associative Learning
Form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment (classical and operant conditioning)
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Classical Conditioning
Learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior
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Cognitive Map
Mental Picture of the layout of the environment
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Conditioned Response (CR)
Response caused by the conditioned stimulus
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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
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Continuous Reinforcement
Rewarding a behaviour every time it occurs
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Extinction
Decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
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Fear Conditioning
A type of classical conditioning that elicits a fear response
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Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule
Behaviour is rewarded after a set amount of time
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Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule
Set number of responses must occur before a behaviour is rewarded
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Higher-Order Conditioning (or second-order)
Using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus
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Insight
The sudden understanding of a solution to a problem
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Instinct
Unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans
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Latent Learning
Learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it
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Law of Effect
Behaviour that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviours that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged
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Learning
Changes in behaviour or knowledge that is the result of experience
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Model
Person who performs a behavior that serves as an example in observational learning
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Negative Punishment
Taking away a pleasant stimulus to decrease or stop a behaviour
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Negative Reinforcement
Taking away an undesirable stimulus to increase a behaviour
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Neutral Stimulus (NS)
Stimulus that does not initially elicit a response
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Observational Learning
Type of learning that occurs by watching others
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Operant Conditioning
Form of learning in which the stimulus/experience happens after the behaviour is demonstrated
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Partial Reinforcement
Rewarding behaviour only some of the time
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Positive Punishment
Adding an undesirable stimulus to stop or decrease a behaviour
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Positive Reinforcement
Adding a desirable stimulus to increase a behaviour
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Primary Reinforcer
Has innate reinforcing qualities (food, water, shelter, sex)
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Punishment
Implementation of a consequence in order to decrease a behaviour
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Radical Behaviourism
Staunch form of behaviorism developed by B. F. Skinner that suggested that even complex higher mental functions like human language are nothing more than stimulus-outcome associations
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Reflex
Unlearned, automatic response by an organism to a stimulus in the environment
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Reinforcement
Implementation of a consequence in order to increase a behavior
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Secondary Reinforcer
Has no inherent value unto itself and only has reinforcing qualities when linked with something else (money, gold stars, stickers, poker chips)
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Shaping
Rewarding successive approximations toward a target behaviour
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Spontaneous Recovery
Return of a previously extinguished conditioned response
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Stimulus Discrimination
Ability to respond differently to similar stimuli
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Stimulus Generalization
Demonstrating the conditioned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
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Unconditioned Response (UCR)
Natural (unlearned) behaviour to a given stimulus
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Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
Stimulus that elicits a reflexive response
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Variable Interval Reinforcement Schedule
Behaviour is rewarded after unpredictable amounts of time have passed
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Variable Ratio Reinforcement Schedule
Number of responses differ before a behaviour is rewarded
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Vicarious Punishment
Process where the observer sees the model being punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the model’s behaviour
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Vicarious Reinforcement
Process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behaviour
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Absolute Threshold
The minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
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Afterimage
The continuation of a visual sensation after the stimulus is removed
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Amplitude
The height of a wave
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Basilar Membrane
A thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system
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Binaural Cue
Two-eared cue to localize sound
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Binocular Cue
Cue that relies on the use of both eyes
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Binocular Disparity
Slightly different view of the world that each eyes receives
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Blind spot
Point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field
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Bottom-Up Processing
System in which perceptions are built from sensory input
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Closure
Organizing our perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts
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Cochlea
Fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system
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Cochlear implant
Electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain
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Conductive Hearing Loss
Failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles
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Cone
Specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects colour
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Congenital Deafness
Deafness from birth
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Congenital Insensitivity to Pain (Congenital Analgesia)
Genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain
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Cornea
Transparent covering over the eye
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Deafness
Partial or complete inability to hear
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Decibel (dB)
Logarithmic unit of sound intensity
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Depth Perception
Ability to perceive depth
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
All the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment
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Figure-Ground Relationship
Segmenting our visual world into figure and ground
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Fovea
Small indentation in the retina that contains cones
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Frequency
Number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
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Gestalt Psychology
Field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts
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Good Continuation (Continuity)
We are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines
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Hair Cell
Auditory receptor cell of the inner ear
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Hertz (Hz)
Cycles per second; measure of frequency
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Inattentional Blindness
Failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention
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Incus
Middle ear ossicle; also known as the anvil
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Inflammatory Pain
Signal that some type of tissue damage has occurred
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Interaural Level Difference
Sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head
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Interaural Timing Difference
Small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear
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Iris
Coloured portion of the eye
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Just Noticeable Difference
Difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli
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Kinaesthesia
Perception of the body’s movement through space
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Lens
Curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye
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Linear Perspective
Perceive depth in an image when two parallel lines seem to converge
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Malleus
Middle ear ossicle; also known as the hammer
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Meissner’s Corpuscle
Touch receptor that responds to pressure and lower frequency vibrations
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Ménière’s Disease
Results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear
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Merkel’s Disk
Touch receptor that responds to light touch
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Monaural Cue
One-eared cue to localize sound
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Monocular Cue
Cue that only requires one eye
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Neuropathic Pain
Pain from damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central nervous system
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Nociception
Sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain
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Olfactory Bulb
Bulb-like structure at the tip of the frontal lobe, where the olfactory nerves begin
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Olfactory Receptor
Sensory cell for the olfactory system
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Opponent-Process Theory of Colour Perception
Colour is coded in opponent pairs; black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green
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Optic Chiasm
X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain
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Optic Nerve
Carries visual information from the retina to the brain
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Pacinian Corpuscle
Touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations
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Pattern Perception
Ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes
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Peak or Crest
Highest point of a wave
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Perception
Way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
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Perceptual Hypothesis
Educated guess used to interpret sensory information