AP Psych Midterm

Overconfidence Bias

Tendency to think you know more than you do or are better at something than you are.

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to believe, after learning the outcome, that you knew it all along; often called Monday Morning Quarterbacking.

Barnum Effect

Tendency to accept very general or vague characterizations of oneself as accurate.

Experimental Method

Research approach that manipulates an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable; often uses random assignment and control groups.

Non-Experimental Method

Research approaches that do not manipulate the independent variable (e.g., case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys, correlations, meta-analyses).

Independent Variable (IV)

The variable that the experimenter manipulates; the presumed cause.

Dependent Variable (DV)

The variable measured in an experiment; the presumed effect.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to reduce bias.

Experimental Group

Group exposed to the independent variable.

Control Group

Group not exposed to the independent variable.

Double-Blind Procedure

Neither participants nor researchers know the expected outcome to prevent bias.

Single-Blind Procedure

Participants are unaware of the expected outcome, but researchers may know.

Placebo Effect

Behavioral change due to expectations rather than the actual treatment.

Hawthorne Effect

Alteration of behavior by subjects due to awareness of being observed.

Demand Characteristics

Cues that may indicate the research objectives and influence participant behavior.

Random Sampling

Selecting a sample so that every member of the population has an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience Sampling

Sampling based on availability, which can lead to biased results.

Sampling Bias

Flawed sampling that produces unrepresentative data.

Naturalistic Observation

Watching subjects in their natural environment without manipulating the environment.

Case Study

In-depth study of a single person, group, or situation over time; rich data but limited generalizability.

Survey Method

Gathers self-reported attitudes or behaviors, often via representative random samples.

Social Desirability Bias

Respondents give answers they think will look good, concealing true opinions.

Wording Effect

How question wording influences respondents’ answers.

Informed Consent

Ethical requirement to inform participants and obtain voluntary participation.

Confidentiality

Protecting participants' data from disclosure.

Debriefing

Providing participants with a full explanation after participation in a study.

Ethics in Animal Research

Clear purpose, humane treatment, legal acquisition, and minimizing suffering.

Ethics in Human Research

Informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing.

Theory

An explanation that organizes observations and predicts outcomes.

Scientific Method

Systematic observation, measurement, experiment, and the formulation, testing, and modification of hypotheses.

Applied Research

Research with clear, practical applications intended to solve real-world problems.

Basic Research

Research aimed at growing general knowledge, not necessarily with immediate applications.

Experimental Hypothesis

A statement predicting that the independent variable will affect the dependent variable.

Null Hypothesis

A statement that there is no effect or relationship between variables.

Replication

Repeating a study to see if findings hold with different participants and conditions.

Descriptive Research

Research that aims to observe and describe behavior (case studies, surveys, naturalistic observation).

Correlational Research

Research to detect naturally occurring relationships between variables; cannot establish causation.

Experimental Research

Research that manipulates variables to determine cause-and-effect relationships.

Third Variable Problem

A correlation may be due to a third variable influencing both variables.

Directionality Problem

Uncertainty about which variable affects the other.

Positive Correlation

Variables move in the same direction (both increase or both decrease).

Negative Correlation

Variables move in opposite directions (one increases as the other decreases).

Correlation Coefficient (r)

A number from -1 to +1 that measures the strength and direction of a linear relationship.

Illusory Correlation

Perceiving a relationship between two variables when none exists; often due to memorable events or selective attention.

Recency Bias

Tendency to rely on the most recently received information when forming judgments.

Regression to the Mean

Extreme scores tend to move toward the average on subsequent measurements.

Statistical Significance

Probability that observed results are due to chance; p-value < .05 is commonly used threshold.

p-value

Probability of obtaining results at least as extreme as observed, assuming the null hypothesis is true.

Effect Size

The magnitude of a relationship or difference, indicating practical significance.

Qualitative Research

Research relying on non-numerical data (interviews, observations, narratives).

Quantitative Research

Research relying on numerical data and statistical analysis.

Meta-Analysis

Statistical synthesis that combines results from multiple studies.

Normal Distribution

Bell-shaped, symmetrical distribution where mean = median = mode; about 68% within ±1 SD.

Skewness

Asymmetry in a distribution caused by outliers; positive skew has more low scores, negative skew has more high scores.

Outliers

Scores that are far from the rest of the data and can distort distributions.

Range

Difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Standard Deviation

Average distance of scores from the mean; measures data spread.

Mean

Arithmetic average of a set of numbers.

Median

Middle value when data are ordered.

Mode

Most frequently occurring value in a data set.

Percentile Rank

Percentage of scores that fall below a given score.

Neuron

a nerve cell; “building block” of the nervous system Icons of Science

Cell Body (Soma)

Life support center of the neuron.

Dendrites

Branching extensions at the cell body. Receives messages from other neurons.

Axon

Long single extension of a neuron, covered with myelin sheath to insulate and speed up messages through neurons.

Terminal Branches of axon

Branched ending of axons. Transmitting messages to other neurons

Synapse

the junction (space) between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another

Neurotransmitter

chemicals that carry messages across the synapse from one neuron to another

Action Potential

The “firing”

Resting Potential

the neuron is ready to fire (chilling waiting on orders)

Electrochemical Process

Electrical inside the neuron; chemical outside the neuron (neurotransmitters)

Excitatory

neurotransmitter effect that makes it more likely that the receiving neuron will generate an action potential or “fire”

Inhibitory

neurotransmitter effect that makes it less likely that the receiving neuron will generate an action potential or “fire”

Reuptake

Neurotransmitters in the synapse are reabsorbed into the sending neurons through the process of reuptake. This process applies brakes on neurotransmitter action.

Refractory Period

After a neuron has fired an action potential it pauses for a short period to recharge itself to fire again

Lock & Key Mechanism

Neurotransmitters bind to the receptors of the receiving neuron

Agonists

It excites; It is similar enough to the neurotransmitter molecule that it mimics the effects on the receiving neuron.

Antagonists

It inhibits; It has a similar enough structure to the neurotransmitter to occupy its receptor and block its action.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

vital role in movement and memory

too much – muscle contractions, convulsions

some spider venoms cause floods of ACh

too little – immobility, extreme lethargy

Botulin causes paralysis by blocking its release

Undersupply of ACh has been linked to Alzheimer’s disease

Dopamine

deals with movement, learning, attention & emotion

lack of dopamine has been linked to Parkinson’s Disease

too much has been linked to Schizophrenia

Many drugs cause our brain to flood with Dopamine

Serotonin

involved in mood control, hunger, sleep / arousal

lack of serotonin has been linked to clinical depression (Prozac and other antidepressants raise levels)

Endorphins

“endogenous morphine”

involved in pain control

most addictive drugs work with endorphins (opioids)

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter. Involved in learning, memory, and brain development.

Oversupply can over stimulate the brain and cause seizures and migraines

GABA

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter Prevents a neuron from generating a nerve impulse.

Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia

Norepinephrine

Helps control alertness and arousal

Undersupply can depress mood

Substance P

Involved in pain perception and immune response

Oversupply can lead to chronic pain

Efferent (Motor) Neurons

info to body parts for movement

Interneurons

info within central nervous system

Afferent (Sensory) Neurons

info to CNS from body parts

Central Nervous System

brain and spinal cord

CNS

Receives Info from the peripheral and then tells it what to do

Peripheral Nervous System

ll nerves that are not encased in bone

everything but the brain and spinal cord

Divided into Somatic and Autonomic

Somatic Nervous System (Peripheral)

controls voluntary muscle movement

uses motor (efferent) neurons

Autonomic Nervous System (Peripheral)

controls the automatic functions of the body

Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic

Sympathetic Nervous System

“Fight or Flight” response

automatically accelerates heart rate, breathing, dilates pupils, slows down digestion

Parasympathetic Nervous System

automatically calms the body down after a stressful event

heart rate and breathing slow down, pupils constrict, and digestion speeds up

think, “parachute”

Reflexes

normally, afferent neurons 🡪 spine 🡪 brain & brain sends orders for movement 🡪 efferent neurons

some reactions occur when sensory neurons reach just the spinal cord & spinal cord sends orders

Neural Networks

interconnected neurons

regular connections or routes of communication for different tasks, processes, etc.

body/brain “learns” networks over time

“muscle memory” in sports (“practice makes permanent”)

Brain

made up of…neurons, glial cells (or glia - support neural cells by insulating them, removing waste, etc.), connective tissues, cerebrospinal fluid

can be divided into three major sections: hindbrain, midbrain, forebrain

Glial Cells

They have four main functions: (1) to surround neurons and hold them in place; (2) to supply nutrients and oxygen to neurons; (3) to insulate one neuron from another; (4) to destroy pathogens and remove dead neurons.

Brain stem (hindbrain)

Midbrain: top

Pons: Middle

Medulla (Medulla Oblongata)