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Sociology
the scientific study of human behavior, social groups, and society
Sociological imagination
the ability to understand how history and biography influence our lives
Sociological perspective
a conscious effort to question the obvious and to remove us from familiar experiences and examine them critically and objectively
Macrosociology
deals with large-scale structures and processes
Microsociology
concerned with small-scale units--how individuals behave in social situations
Social science
has human behavior, social organizations, or society as its subject matter
Economics
the study of how goods, services, and wealth are produced, consumed, and distributed within societies
Political science
the study of power, governments, and political processes
Anthropology
the study of the physical, biological, social, and cultural development of humans
Traditional indigenous
refers to ethnic groups who are native to a land or region
Psychology
the study of human mental processes and individual human behavior
Social psychology
the study of how individuals interact with other individuals or groups and how groups influence the individual
History
the study of the past
Geography
the study of the physical environment and the distribution of plants and animals, including humans
Social work
the field in which the principles of the social sciences are applied to actual social problems
Applied sciences
sciences that directly use the principles of the pure sciences
Pure sciences
sciences that seek knowledge for its own sake
Auguste Comte
The term sociology was coined by
Theory
a set of interrelated statements or propositions that explain a particular process or phenomenon
Structural functionalism
theory that societies contain certain interdependent structure, each of which performs certain functions for the maintenance of society; macro-level
Social system
a set of interrelated social statuses and the expectations that accompany them
Manifest functions
intended and recognized consequences of a social system
Latent functions
consequences of a social system that are neither intended nor recognized
Dysfunctions
factors that lead to the disruption or breakdown of the social system
Functional alternatives
other ways to achieve the intended goal
Conflict theory
social theory that views conflict as inevitable and natural and as a significant cause of social change; macro-level
Symbolic interaction theory
social theory that stresses interactions between people and the social processes that occur within the individual that are made possible by language and internalized meaning; most widely used and recognized interaction perspective; micro-level
Exchange theory
a theory of interaction that attempts to explain social behavior in terms of reciprocity of costs and rewards
Evolutionary theory
theory of social development that suggests that societies, like biological organisms, progress through stages of increasing complexity
Karl Marx
Who came up with the conflict theory?
George Herbert Mead
Who developed the symbolic interaction theory?
Culture
a system of ideas, values, beliefs, knowledge, norms, customs, and technology shared by almost everyone in a particular society
Society
a group of interacting persons who live in a specific geographical area, who are organized in a cooperative manner, and who share a common culture
Ethnocentrism
the attitude that our own culture is superior to others, that our own beliefs, values, and behaviors are more correct than others
Xenocentrism
the belief that what is foreign is best, that our own lifestyle, products, or ideas are inferior to those of others
Temprocentrism
the belief that our own time is more important than the past or future
Cultural relativism
the belief that cultures must be judged on their own terms and rather than by the standards of another culture
Norms
formal and informal rules of conduct and social expectations for behavior; standards, rules, guides, and expectations for actual behavior
Symbol
something that is used to represent something else
Language
systematized usage of speech and hearing to convey or express feelings and ideas
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis
the hypothesis that societies with different languages perceive the world differently because their members interpret the world through the grammatical forms, labels, and categories their language provides
Values
ideas shared by the people in a society regarding what is important and worthwhile
Beliefs
view that people share about what is true or what really exists
Folkways
type of norm; customs or conventions; violations bring only mid censure
Mores
type of norm; involve clear-cut distinctions between right and wrong; more closely associated with the moral values a society considers important; violations bring more severe punishment
Taboos
mores that prohibit something
Mos
the Latin singular of mores
Laws
formal, standardized expressions of norms enacted by legislative bodies to regulate particular types of behaviors
Pathology of normalcy
the concept that cultural norms are not always beneficial for a society, group, or individual
Technology
the material techniques and products a society uses to maintain its standard of living
Artifacts
physical products or objects created through human actions
Cultural lag
the tendency for material culture to outpace non-material culture
Institutions
a stable cluster of values, norms, statuses, and roles that develops around a basic social goal
Subcultures
groups who share some of the cultural elements of the larger society yet also have their own distinctive set of norms, values, symbols, and lifestyles
High culture
reflects the tastes of the wealthy, affluent, or upper classes
Folk culture
reflects the tastes of the working class or ethnic groups
Popular culture
reflects the tastes of the masses within a society
Counterculture
a subculture that adheres to a set of beliefs and values that are in opposition to the dominant culture of which it is part
Ideal culture
consists of the norms and values people profess to follow
Real culture
the norms and values people actually follow and practice
Cultural universals
aspects of culture that are shared by all people
Idioculture
a system of knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, and customs created through group interactions; unique to a given group
"taste cultures" identified by Herbert Gans
high culture, folk culture, and popular culture
the process of applying social sanctions
Social control is essentially what?
Socialization
the process of learning how to interact in society by learning the rules and expectations of society
Nature-nurture debate
debate over whether behavior results from predetermined biological characteristics or from socialization
Sociobiology
the study of biological and genetic determinants of social behavior
Instincts
patterns or reflexes that occur in animals; biological or hereditary impulses, drives, or behaviors that require not learning or reasoning
Self
the sense of one's own identity as a person
Role-taking
assuming the roles of others and seeing the world from their perspective
Play
a way of practicing role-taking
Significant others
important people in the lives of children, especially with regard to socialization
Generalized others
the organized community or social group that provides reference for a child's own conduct
I
the acting, unself-conscious person
Me
the part of the self that sees self as object, evaluates self, and is aware of society's expectations of self
Mind
the process of using a language and thinking
Looking-glass self
three components are: how we think our behavior appears to others, how we think others judge our behavior, and how we feel about their judgments
Self-fulfilling prophecy
a prediction that comes true because people believe it and act as though it were true
Presentation of self
the way we present ourselves to others and how our presentation influences others
Dramaturgical approach
interaction is compared to a drama on stage
Account of behavior
an effort at maintaining the self by explaining the reasons for or facts surrounding the behavior
Disclaimers
maintaining our presentation of self by denying behavior that contradicts how we wish to be viewed
Pre-conventional stage (of moral development)
children act according to what authoritative figures expect from them; morality is external, and children are simply trying to avoid punishment
Conventional stage (of moral development)
children have internalized what has been taught to them and begin to view right and wrong in terms of what is socially acceptable; they want to be a good person and do what is right
Post-conventional stage (of moral development)
individuals are more concerned with the rights of others than with the laws of society
Id
inborn drives for self-gratification
Ego
balancing principle; mediator between the id and the superego
Superego
our conscience
Peer group
an informal primary group of people who share a similar or equal status and who are usually of roughly the same age
Mass media
forms of communication, such as television, popular magazines, and radio, intended for a large audience
Instrumental role
a role that emphasizes accomplishment of tasks and is traditionally associated more with men than with women
Expressive role
a role that emphasizes warmth and understanding rather than action or leadership and is traditionally associated more with women than with men
Gender identity
the social construction of boys and girls, men and women, as opposed to their biological characteristics
Resocialization
socialization to a new role or position in life that requires a dramatic shift in the attitudes, values, behaviors, and expectations learned in the past
Mortification of self
stripping the self of all the characteristics of a past identity, including clothing, personal possessions, friends, roles and routines, and so on
have normal development
In Spitz's study, the children reared with their mothers in a detention center compared to those in foundling homes were found to _______.
Deviance
variation from a set of norms or shared social expectations
Absolutist view
the view that there is wide agreement about social norms and that certain behaviors are deviant regardless of the social context in which they occur
Moralist view
the view that some norm violations are deviant because they are morally wrong
Medical view
the view that deviance is essentially pathological evidence that a society is unhealthy