PSYC 1010 - Exam 2

Human Development

The scientific study of changes that occur in people as they age, from birth to death.

Longitudinal Design

A research method where participants are studied over a long period of time to observe age-related changes.

Cross-Sectional Design

A research method that studies participants at a certain point in time, comparing individuals of different ages.

Cross-Sequential Design

A research method that studies one or more participants at a certain point in time and follows them over time.

Cohort Effect

The impact of development when a group of people share a common period or life experience.

Nature

The influence of inherited characteristics on personality, physical growth, intellectual growth, and social interactions.

Nurture

The influence of the environment on an individual's development.

Behavior Genetics

The study of how much behavior is influenced by genetics and experiences.

Huntington’s Disease

A genetic disorder characterized by the breakdown of neurons in the brain.

Marfan’s Syndrome

A genetic disorder affecting connective tissue.

Recessive Gene Diseases

Genetic disorders that require two copies of a recessive gene to manifest, including cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Tay-Sachs disorder.

Klinefelter Syndrome

A genetic condition where the 23rd set of sex chromosomes is XXY.

Turner Syndrome

A genetic condition where the 23rd pair of sex chromosomes is missing an X, resulting in a lone X chromosome.

Zygote

A single cell formed by the union of an ovum and sperm, containing 46 chromosomes.

Monozygotic Twins

Identical twins that develop from one fertilized egg, sharing the same genetic material.

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal twins that develop from two separate eggs fertilized by two different sperm.

Bioethics

The study of ethical and moral issues arising from advances in science and their impact on policies and practices.

Germinal Period

The first two weeks after fertilization, during which the zygote implants in the uterus and the placenta forms.

Embryonic Period

The stage from 2 to 8 weeks after fertilization, during which organs and structures of a human infant are formed.

Teratogen

Any drug, chemical, or virus that can cause a birth defect during critical periods of development.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

A range of problems resulting from alcohol consumption during pregnancy, leading to physical, mental, and behavioral issues.

Full Term

The typical duration of pregnancy, lasting between 38 to 40 weeks.

Pre-term

Infants born before 38 weeks of gestation, often facing various health challenges.

Miscarriage

The loss of a pregnancy during the first three months, often due to genetic defects.

Preferential Looking

A method used to determine an infant's preferences based on how long they stare at different stimuli.

Habituation

The process by which infants stop paying attention to stimuli that do not change.

Reflexes

Involuntary behavior patterns that help infants survive and indicate the functioning of their nervous system.

Synaptic Pruning

The process of eliminating unused synaptic connections and nerve cells to enhance functioning connections.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

A theory outlining the stages of cognitive growth in children, including sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operations, and formal operations.

Object Permanence

The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, developed during the sensorimotor stage.

Egocentrism

The inability to see the world from perspectives other than one's own, characteristic of the preoperational stage.

Scaffolding

A teaching method where a more skilled learner helps a less skilled learner, gradually withdrawing support as skills improve.

Zone of Proximal Development

The difference between what a child can do independently and what they can do with assistance.

Autism Spectrum Disorder

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges in social interaction and communication.

Temperament

The innate behavioral and emotional characteristics of an individual, often established at birth.

Attachment

The emotional bond formed between a child and caregiver, typically established within the first few months of life.

Secure Attachment

A style of attachment where children feel safe to explore and are distressed when separated from their caregiver.

Avoidant Attachment

A style of attachment where children show little emotional response to their caregiver's absence or return.

Ambivalent Attachment

A style of attachment characterized by mixed feelings, where children are clingy and upset by separation.

Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment

A style of attachment where children display confused or contradictory behaviors towards their caregiver.

Harlow’s Study

An experiment demonstrating the importance of contact comfort in attachment, using baby rhesus monkeys and surrogate mothers.

Self Concept

The perception and image one has of oneself, shaped by interactions with significant others.

Erikson’s Theory

A theory of psychosocial development outlining stages of personality development throughout the lifespan.

Adolescence

The developmental period from age 13 to early 20s, marked by the transition from childhood to adulthood.

Puberty

The period of physical changes leading to sexual maturity, involving hormonal changes.

Personal Fable

An adolescent belief that they are unique and invulnerable to harm.

Imaginary Audience

The belief that others are as concerned about the adolescent's thoughts and appearance as they are.

Kohlberg’s Levels of Morality

A framework outlining the stages of moral development, including preconventional, conventional, and post-conventional morality.

Erikson’s Identity vs Role Confusion

A stage in adolescence where individuals explore their identity and sense of self.

Parent-Teen Conflict

The necessary rebellion during adolescence that helps individuals become self-sufficient.

Emerging Adulthood

The transitional phase from late adolescence through the 20s, characterized by exploration and instability.

Cognitive Development in Adulthood

The changes in cognitive abilities and processing speed that occur throughout adulthood.

Erikson’s Intimacy vs Isolation

A stage in young adulthood focused on forming intimate relationships while maintaining a sense of self.

Erikson’s Generativity vs Stagnation

A stage in middle adulthood where individuals focus on contributing to the next generation or risk stagnation.

Parenting Styles

Different approaches to raising children, including authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative styles.

Erikson’s Ego Integrity vs Despair

A stage in late adulthood where individuals reflect on their life and either achieve a sense of fulfillment or experience regret.

Theories of Aging

Various theories explaining the biological processes of aging, including cellular-clock, wear-and-tear, and free-radical theories.

Cellular-clock theory

Cells are limited to the number of times they can reproduce to repair damages

Wear-and-tear theory

Outside influences can wear out the body’s organs and cell tissues with repeated use and abuse

Free Radical Theory

Oxygen molecules that have an unstable electron, stealing more electrons causing damage to the structures inside the cell

Activity Theory

Assumes that older people are happier remaining active in some way such as volunteering or learning a hobby

People go through 5 stages of reaction when faced with death:

Denial: Refusal to believe that you might die, even if signs/doctors show evidence nearing death

Anger: Lashing out at close ones, getting mad at those around you, being mad at god or the universe

Bargaining: Praying, bargaining with doctors

Depression: sadness from losses that may come before or after death

Acceptance: accepting the inevitable, waiting for death

Authoritarian parenting

over concerned with rules, overly strict, and uncompromising to the child

Permissive Parenting

The parent makes few if any, demands on the child’s behavior

Authoritative

combining warmth and affection with firm limits on a child’s behavior

Post-conventional morality

Determined by experiences and judgment of the person, even if that may disagree with society’s rules

Conventional morality

An action is morally right if it follows the rules of society, and wrong if it does not

preconventional morality

Morality is based on consequences: Actions that are right get rewarded, while those that earn punishment are wrong

Schemas

concept or framework that guides organization & interpretation of information, evolving from experiences and events

Assimilation

trying to understand new things in terms of schemas that they already possess

Accommodation

alter and adjust old schemas to adjust information

Learning

Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by experience or practice.

Classical Conditioning

Learning to make an involuntary response to a stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that leads to an involuntary response (e.g., food for dogs).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

Involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus (e.g., salivation to food).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that has no effect on the response (e.g., dogs not salivating at the sight of food).

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A neutral stimulus that triggers a response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Generalization

The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the original conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

The tendency to stop making a generalized response to a similar stimulus that is not paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a learned response after extinction has occurred.

High-Order Conditioning

A strong conditioned stimulus is paired with a neutral stimulus, causing the neutral stimulus to become a second conditioned stimulus.

Phobia

An irrational fear response.

Conditioned Emotional Response (CER)

An emotional response that has become classically conditioned to learned stimuli.

Vicarious Conditioning

Classical conditioning of an involuntary response by observing another person's reaction.

Conditioned Taste Aversion

Development of nausea or aversive response to a particular taste due to a previous negative experience.

Operant Conditioning

Learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences.

Law of Effect

Actions followed by pleasurable consequences are likely to be repeated; those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated.

Operant Behavior

Any behavior that is voluntary and not elicited by specific stimuli.

Reinforcement

Any event or stimulus that increases the probability of a response occurring again.

Primary Reinforcer

A reinforcer that fulfills a biological need (e.g., food, water).

Secondary Reinforcer

A reinforcer that is paired with a primary reinforcer (e.g., money).

Positive Reinforcement

The addition of a pleasurable stimulus to increase a response.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant stimulus to increase a response.

Partial Reinforcement Effect

Responses reinforced after some, but not all, correct responses are more resistant to extinction.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcement of every correct response.