Chapter 1: Introduction to Lifespan Development

lifespan development

field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior throughout the lifespan

the different focuses of lifespan development

biological processes, genetic endowment, cognitive development, physical growth, and social development

approaches of lifespan development (4)

personality development, social development, physical development, and cognitive development

physical development

examines the ways in which the body's makeup helps determine behavior

cognitive development

seeks to understand how growth and change intellectual capabilities influence a person's behavior

personality devlopment

the study of stability and change in the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person from another over the life span

social development

ways in which individuals' interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life

age and range differences

prenatal period; infancy and toddlerhood; middle childhood; adolescence; emerging adulthood; young adulthood; middle adulthood; late adulthood

prenatal period

conception to birth

infancy and toddlerhood period

birth to age 3

preschool period

ages 3 to 6

middle childhood

ages 6 to 12

adolescence

ages 12 to 20

young adulthood

ages 20 to 40

middle adulthood

ages 40 to 65

late adulthood

ages 65 to death

cohort

group of people born at around the same time in the same place

influences on development

history-graded, age-graded, sociocultural-graded, non-normative life event

history graded influences

biological and environmental influences associated with particular historical moment...

examples: 9/11

age-graded influences

biological and environmental influences that are similar for individuals in a particular age...

examples: puberty, menopause, entering formal education

sociocultural-graded influences

the social and cultural factors present at a particular age group (*will be considerably different for children who are white and affluent than for children who are members of a minority group and living in poverty*)

non-normative life events

specific, atypical events that occur in a person's life at a time when such events do not happen to most people

example: child whose parent's died in automobile accident at age 6

major issues in lifespan development

continuous change vs. discontinuous change...

critical period vs. sensitive period

lifespan approach vs. particular periods approach...

nature vs. nurture...

continuous change

gradual development in which achievements at one level build on those of previous levels; quantitative change

discontinuous change

development that occurs in distinct steps or stages; each stage brings about behavior that is qualitatively different from behavior at earlier stages

critical period

presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally

critical period

absence of certain kinds of environmental influences is likely to produce permanent, irreversible consequences

sensitive period

a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain environmental stimuli

sensitive period

absence of particular environmental influences may hinder development

lifespan approach

current theories emphasize growth and change throughout life, relatedness of different periods

focus on particular periods

infancy and adolescence emphasized by early developmentalists as most important periods

nature (genetic factors)

emphasis is on discovering inherited genetic traits and abilities (encompasses any factor that is produced by maturation)

nurture (environmental factors)

emphasis is on environmental influences that affect a person's development (may be biological, social, societal-level factors)

theory

broad, organized explanations and predictions concerning phenomena of interest

6 major perspectives

psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive,humanistic, contextual, and evolutionary

psychodynamic perspective

states that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts of which a person has little awareness or control

psychodynamic perspective

includes psychoanalytical and psychosocial theories

psychoanalytical theory

unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior

psychoanalytical theory

Sigmund Freud

id

(*psychoanalytical theory *)

raw, unorganized, inborn part of personality that is present at birth; operates according to pleasure principle (goal is to max. satisfaction and reduce tension)

ego

(*psychoanalytical theory *)

rational and reasonable; buffer between real world and id; operates on reality principle (energy is restrained to maintain the safety and help integrate the person into society)

superego

(*psychoanalytical theory *)

represents a person's conscience; distinctions between right and wrong; learned from parents, teachers, etc.

psychosexual development

pleasure is focused on a particular biological function and body part (oral, anal, phallic, genital)

psychosocial theory

encompasses changes is our interactions with and understandings of one another as well as in our knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society

psychosocial theory

includes 8 stages (page 16: table 1-3)

psychosocial theory

Erik Erikson

behavioral perspective

suggests that keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment

behavioral perspective

nurture > nature; behavior is result of continuing exposure to specific factors in environment; quantitative > qualitative

classical conditioning

occurs when an organism learns to respond in a particular way to neutral stimulus that normally does't evoke response

classical conditioning

John B. Watson

operant conditioning

form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

operant conditioning

B.F. Skinner

reinforcement

(*operant conditioning*)

process where stimulus is provided to increase the probability that a behavior will repeat

punishment

(*operant conditioning*)

introduction of unpleasant or painful stimulus or the removal of desirable stimulus

extinguished

(*operant conditioning*)

behavior that receives no reinforcement or is punished is likely to be...

behavior modification

(*operant conditioning*)

formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

social-cognitive learning theory

approach that emphasizes learning by observing the behavior of another person called a model

social-cognitive learning theory

Albert Bandura and colleagues

four steps of social-cognitive learning theory

(1) pay attention and perceive the most critical features...

(2) successfully recall the behavior...

(3) reproduce behavior accurately...

(4) motivated to learn and carry out behavior...

cognitive perspective

focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world

cognitive perspective

Jean Piaget

cognitive perspective

quantity of information increases; quality of knowledge and understanding changes

schemes

(*cognitive perspective*)

organized mental patterns that represent behaviors and actions; how human thinking is arranged

assimilation

process in which people understand an experience in terms of their current stage of cognitive development and way of thinking; use current ways of thinking to understand new experience

accommodation

changes in existing ways of thinking in response to encounters with new stimuli

information processing approach

seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use, and store information; behavior can be broken down into a series of steps

qualitative, quantitative (quiz question)

Piaget's view that thinking undergoes _______ advances as children age, information processing approaches assume __________ advances

neo-Piagetian theory

information processing approach that builds on Piaget's research

neo-Piagetian theory

cognitive development proceed quickly in certain areas and more slowly in others; experience plays greater role in cognition

cognitive neuroscience approaches

looks at cognitive development through the lens of brain processes; associations between specific genes and wide range of disorders are identified

cognitive neuroscience approaches

considers internal, mental processes, but focuses specifically on the neurological activity that underlies thinking, problem solving, and other cognitive behavior

humanistic perspective

contends that people have natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and to control their behavior

humanistic perspective

Carl Rogers; Abraham Maslow

humanistic perspective

focus on person's ability and motivation to reach more advanced levels; states people naturally seek to reach full potential

humanistic perspective

free of supernaturalism; approach recognizes human beings as a part of nature and holds values have their source in human experience and culture

free

(*humanistic perspective*)

ability of humans to make choices and come to decisions about their lives

positive self-regard

(*humanistic perspective*)

results from a underlying wish to be loved and respected;

self-actualization

(*humanistic perspective*)

state of self-fulfillment in which people achieve their highest potential in their own unique way; primary goal of people

contextual perspective

considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality and social worlds

bioecological approach

suggests that five levels of the environment simultaneously influences individuals; each level contains norms, roles, and rules

bioecological approach

Bronfenbrenner

mircosystem

(*bioecological approach*)

everyday, immediate environment in which children lead their daily lives...

examples: homes, caregivers, teachers

mesosystem

(*bioecological approach*)

provides connections between the various aspects of the microsystem; acknowledges direct and indirect influences...

example: bad day at work effects attitude at home

exosystem

(*bioecological approach*)

represents broader influences, encompassing societal institutions...

examples: local government, community, schools, local media

macrosystem

(*bioecological approach*)

represents larger cultural influences on an individual...

example: value culture or society puts on education affect values of people in that society

chronosystem

(*bioecological approach*)

underlies each of the other systems; involves the way the passage of time affect children's development

examples: 9/11, number of women who work outside home

sociocultural theory

emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

sociocultural theory

Vygotsky

sociocultural theory

understanding of the world is acquired through their problem-solving interactions with adults and other children

sociocultural theory

development is a reciprocal transaction between people in child's environment and child; children being both recipents socialization influences and sources of influence

evolutionary perspective

seeks to identify behavior that is the result of our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

evolutionary perspective

Charles Darwin and Konrad Lorenz

evolutionary perspective

through process of natural selection, traits in a species that are adaptive to its environment are created (includes personality traits and social behaviors)

ethology

(*evolutionary perspective*)

examines ways in which biological makeup affects behavior

scientific method

process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic, orderly observation and collection of data

steps of scientific method

identifying questions of interest; formulating an explanation; carrying out research that either lends support to the explanation or refutes it

hypothesis

a prediction stated in a way that permits it to be tested

correlational research

seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists; does NOT determine causation

experimental research

designed to discover causal relationships between various factors; fundamental to finding answers

correlation coefficient

strength and direction of relationship between two factors represented by mathematical score that ranges form +1 to -1