IB psych sociocultural (the individual and the group)

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33 Terms

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reciprocal determinism

The bidirectional relationship between the individual and the group: the group’s behaviour is effected by the individual and the individual is effected by being in a group.

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social comparison (individual)

Looking at others in the group to determine how one should act.

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informative social influence

A type of social comparison: observing other members of a group to understand what is expected in order to act in the same way.

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normative social influence

A type of social comparison: observing other members of the group in order to act in the same way and be accepted, driven by a desire to fit in

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conformity

changing behaviour in order to be in line with others

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Asch paradigm

A series of experiments on conformity run by Solomon Asch 1950, tested the way individuals responded to group-think and to what extent social pressure could cause a person to conform.

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naturalistic research

Research that is done in environments where the behaviour being studied is most likely to take place.

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participant observation

Where researchers immerse themselves in a social setting for an extended amount of time to observe behaviour.

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overt observation

Researchers inform participants that they are being observed.

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covert observation

researchers do not inform participants that they are being observed.

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Characteristics of covert observation:

  • Sometimes used with group that would be hostile to an outsider observing their behavior.

  • and/or groups that would not be honest

  • this could potentially be due to the illegal nature of their activities

    Concerns:

  • The researcher must gain participants’ trust but this must be done through deceit

  • researcher must not disclose intentions to members of the group

  • researcher must record participants’ behaviour without obtaining informed consent

  • researchers will have difficulty with taken notes during

  • researchers may have to recall information via memory, opening the possibility of distortion

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Social Identity Theory

Argument proposed by Tajfel (1979): along with a ‘personal self’ every individual has several social selves that correspond to group membership. it is very important that we understand who we are and know our value in social contexts.

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salience

Our awareness to our identity in a particular group.

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social categorization

The process of classifying people into groups based on similar characteristics, whether is be nationality, age, occupation, or some other trait.

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in-group favoritism

The tendency to favor members of one’s own group over out-group members.

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social comparison (group)

The process of evaluating one’s own group (the in-group) by comparing it to other groups (the out-groups) in order to enhance feelings of self-worth, uniqueness, and superiority.

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positive distinctiveness

A bias in intergroup comparisons, where we are more positive toward anything our own group represents, caused by a need for a positive self-concept.

(In simpler terms): we try to highlight the strengths and positives of our own group to feel better about ourselves.

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minimum group paradigm

Tajfel’s demonstration that the minimal condition needed for group favouritism is simply categorization into a group, no matter how arbitrary the criteria for categorization are.

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Social Cognitive Learning Theory

Argument developed by Albert Bandura: humans can acquire new behaviours by observing and imitating others.

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Two situations where observational learning occurs:

  1. Direct effect: model directly demonstrating, eg. a teacher instructing how to solve a problem.

  2. Indirect effect (often): the models are not trying to influence behaviour.

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vicarious reinforcement

A learning process where an individual imitates a behaviour because they have observed someone else being rewarder for that behaviour .

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Factors involved in social cognitive learning according to Bandura:

  • Attention: paying attention to a model in order to learn a behaviour. this may depend on the model’s attractiveness, authority, or the desirability of the behaviour.

  • Retention: the observer must be able to remember the behaviour that has been observed in order to produce that behaviour after some time.

  • Motivation: learners must want to replicate the behaviour that they have observed. They must understand the potential outcome in order to be motivated to perform the behaviour (outcome expectancies).

  • Potential: observers must physically and/or mentally be able to carry out the behaviour, there needs to be a certain level of self-efficacy.

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Outcome Expectancy Theory

Argument: individuals are driven to act or behave in a certain way based on anticipation or prediction of the outcomes of their actions.

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Factors that may influence whether or not the observer decided to imitate and learn:

  • Consistency: If the model behaves in a way that is consistent across situations then the observer will be more likely to imitate them.

  • Identification with the model: There is a tendency to imitate models who are like us (eg. in age or gender)

  • Liking the model: Warm and friendly is more likely to be imitated than cold, uncaring models.

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Self-efficacy

One’s belief in one’s ability to successfully carry out a task.

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stereotype

a social perception of an individual in terms of group membership or physical attributes.

a generalization made about a group and then attributed to members of the group.

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out-group homogeneity

The perception that members of an outgroup are identical to one another.

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Tajfel’s gain of truth hypothesis

Argument: an experience with an individual from a group will then be generalized to the group

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illusory correlation

Seeing a relationship between two variables when there isn’t one.

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confirmation bias

When people have developed a perception of something (due to illusory correlation) and so they seek out or remember information that supports it.

can cause people to overlook information that they already beleive.

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cross sectional study

A type of observational study that measures the prevalence of an outcome of interest in a defined population at a specific point in time.

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stereotype threat

Occurs when one is in a situation where there is a threat of being judged or treated stereotypically or fear of doing something that inadvertently confirms that stereotype.

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Some effects of stereotyping threat:

  1. spotlight anxiety

  2. memory distortion