Animal Behaviour 2

What are actual adaptations in the context of evolution?

Actual adaptations are traits that have evolved through natural selection.

What are by-products of evolution?

By-products are traits that are carried along with adaptations

What are noise or random effects in evolution?

Noise or random effects include chance mutations, sudden environmental changes, and developmental accidental effects.

Products of evolution

1. actual adaptations

2. By-products

3. Noise or random effects

What is language a by-product of

language is a by-product of our large brains.

what effects can by-products and noise have

positive, neutral, and negative

Mechanisms of maintenance of non-adaptive traits

gene flow, pleiotropy, linkage, epistasis

Gene flow

exchange of genes between populations - immigration

Pleiotropy

The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects.

Linkage

alleles that are on the same chromosome are more likely to be together

What is an example of epistasis?

A gene causing albinism overshadows the gene for hair color.

What is epistasis?

Interaction between alleles in which one allele hides the effects of another allele.

Neutral terminology

ancestral - for "primitive"

derived - for "advanced"

Evolutionary explanations: cautions 2

1. evolution does not necessarily mean an increase in complexity

2. complexity does not necessarily mean better than simplicity

3. complexity may be associated with lack of flexibility or adaptability to rapidly occuring environmental changes

4. environment = passive force, gives no directions, no predetermined goals.

5. the opposite view is a fallacy called the "purposivism fallacy" or "teleology'

Purposovism fallacy or teleology

there is no OBJECTIVE "purpose" to evolution, just adapt to the environment

cultural primatology

the study of cultural traditions in primates

Non traditionally "adaptive" behaviour

1. symbiosis (mainly commensalism and mutualism)

2. altruism with non-kin (reciprocal altruism?)

3. Play (immediate vs. delayed benefits, play is fun)

4. Adoption (within or between species)

5. same-sex sexual behaviour

6. risk-taking behaviour (ravens pulling wolves tails)

Domestication

generational, changes one or more phenotype over many generations

Taming

taming over a lifetime, not generations

What kind of selection is domestication

artificial selection

What is the domestication syndrome?

Phenotypic traits of domesticated species, not found in wild species.

What does the domestication syndrome affect?

Gene expression, not gene structure.

most likely affects the endocrine and nervous systems that are associated with docility such as serotonin.

It also disrupts the seasonality of reproduction, such as the difference between wolf and dog reproductive cycles.

Non-behavioural domestication syndrome examples

reduced brain size, reproductive cycle changes, different colouration patterns

Behvavioural domestication syndrome examples

tameness/docility

domestication syndrome: effects on the phenotype

Chemophenes

Somatophenes

Physiophenes

Ethophenes

Psychophenes

Chemophenes

changes in molecules with synthesis regulated by genes

Somatophenes

Internal and external body forms (i.e., morphology and anatomy).

Physiophenes

Different physiological systems (immune, nervous, endocrine, etc.)

Ethophenes

-patterns of behaviour (i.e., overt, observable behaviours

-many innate

Psychophenes

Psychological constructs (mind), i.e., covert processes such as intelligence, personality, emotionality, etc

Peramorphosis

The juvenile of the derived organism resembles the adult of the ancestor

- dogs go through more changes during the first year of their life

Domestication theories (all species)

Pathways, NCT, pre-adaptations

What is the commensal pathway in pathways theory?

Initiated by the animal, subordinates at least (dogs, cats, chickens, muscovy ducks)

What is the prey pathway in pathways theory?

Initiated by humans (sheep, goats, cattle)

What is the directed pathway in pathways theory?

Initiated by humans for the explicit purpose of domestication

Niche Construction Theory (NCT)

when a species modifies significantly its habitat

- beavers and their dams

- wolves (commensals) drawn to niche created by humans - co-evolutionary relationship

Pre-adaptations

behavioural pre-adaptations that make it easier to connect to humans?

What is the first category of pre-adaptations?

Group structure: the social factor

What is the second category of pre-adaptations?

Sexual behaviour: the reproductive factor

What is the third category of pre-adaptations?

Parent-young interactions: the parental factor

What is the fourth category of pre-adaptations?

Responses to humans: the anthropological factor

What is the fifth category of pre-adaptations?

Food and habitat: the ecological factor

Do wolves have an obvious social structure

no, wolves do not

How did the domestication of wolves happen

We don't know if we approached them or vice versa, it is possible that both ocured

Facilitating factors for domestication (Hale)

why were anseriformes domesticated

their large clutch size (eggs)

- most likely through the prey pathway

Broodiness in domesticated ducks

loss of broodiness - muschovy duck exception

What type of species possess a specific gene(s) associated with higher levels of oxytocin?

Monogamous species

What happens to monogamous species when the gene(s) associated with oxytocin are removed?

They become polygamous

Which domesticated animals do not follow the monogamy to polygamy pattern?

Dogs, cats, and ferrets

what canid is not monogamous or even nearly inclined to be monogamous

the domestic dog

What is the potential game-changer in domesticating unlikely animals

the importance of neoteany/paedomorphosis

What are the two factors to Hale

Intra- and inter-species aggressive behaviour

Shelter-seeking

What advantage do non-aggressive species have?

Non-aggressive species have an advantage when it comes to domestication

How is shelter-seeking viewed in the context of Hale?

Shelter-seeking is seen as unfavourable.

What is shelter-seeking associated with?

Shelter-seeking is associated with altriciality.

Developmental factors

Neoteny/paedomorphosis

Behavioural and neur(on)al plasticity

neoteny/paedomorphosis

retention of juvenile characteristics as an adult. Slowing of maturation

neoteny/paedomorphosis in cats

frozen at the "kitten" stage

- social

neoteny/paedomorphosis in dogs

mature dogs are the social equivalent of yearling wolf pups

neoteny/paedomorphosis in foxes

dog-like traits

what could neotenic traits be a byproduct of?

byproduct of domestication

Mickey Mouse on neoteny

the juvenilization of his design since his creation

- humans seeking it?

Lorenz on neoteny

features of juvenility act as sign stimuli/IRM's for affection and nurturing in adult huhmans

Heterochrony

changes in rate, time and order of developmental events

What is heterochrony?

A change in the time of onset and offset of developmental stages.

What does heterochrony refer to in terms of development rates? - canids

Changes in the rate of development.

What does heterochrony involve regarding the number of developmental changes? - canids

Changes in the number of developmental changes.

What is paedomorphosis?

A type of heterochrony characterized by less or slower development.

What is peramorphosis?

A type of heterochrony characterized by more or faster development.

Are dogs paedomorphic compared to wolves

yes, they are

- anatomy/morphology/physiology

- behaviour

wolf behavioural characteristics that are favoured during taming (and typical of juvenile wolves)

submissiveness, sensitivity to social reinforcement

Goal: maintain these traits through adulthood

Socialization period

extended for domesticated animals

What was the focus of the Belyaev/Trut study?

The domestication of foxes over 30 generations.

What was a significant finding of the Belyaev/Trut study?

Fast change in behavior and traits in foxes.

What hypothesis does the Belyaev/Trut study suggest about the domestication of dogs?

It may follow a similar path as the domestication of wolves to dogs.

According to Lord, do consistent sets of traits define domestication syndrome?

No consistent set of traits defines domestication syndrome

- no single trait is included in every publication

What eyes indicate domestication

two-coloured eyes (heterochromia)

- huskies

What is the quality of domestic fox fur

poor quality

What does domestication syndrome affect?

Gene expression, not gene structure.

How does domestication syndrome influence development?

It influences systems of neuroendocrine control of ontogenesis (development) in a stressful environment.

- serotonin and stress

How does domestication syndrome affect the seasonality of reproduction?

It disrupts the seasonality of reproduction.

How often do wolves reproduce?

Once a year.

How often do dogs reproduce?

Twice a year.

How many estrous periods do dogs have per year?

1 to 2 estrous periods a year

What is a key change in paternal behavior from wolves to dogs?

From advanced to no paternal behaviour

- canids are usually great fathers, dogs are not

How does the body size of dogs compare to that of wolves?

Dogs have a shorter head, short limbs, and smaller body size compared to wolves.

What change occurs in body language and vocal communications from wolves to dogs?

From complex to atrophied body language and vocal communications

How many vocalizations do wolves have compared to dogs?

Wolves have around 20 vocalizations, while dogs have 4.

Trainability in tamed wolves

low trainability

- poor learners

But excellent problem solvers

Trainability in dogs

High trainability, excellent learners

poor problem solvers

Asking for help in humans

dogs ask for help, wolves never do

Neurochemical/hormonal changes

domesticated foxes have higher levels of serotonin and tryptophan hydroxylase

inhibited adrenal response to stress

Main theories of lupine - canine domestication

Scavenger theories

extreme version: parasitism theories

Mutualism theories

Extreme version: co-evolution theories

What is the omega wolf hypothesis?

Omega wolves are less likely to get scarce resources in a pack so they went to humans.

Why do omega wolves go to humans?

Because humans have resources.

What is a characteristic of omega wolves?

They are submissive by nature.

How do omega wolves typically behave in terms of aggression?

They have low aggression.

Are omega wolves picky about resources?

No, they are not picky.

What is a protective behavior of omega wolves?

They are protective.