AP Psych Semester 1 Review

Behavioral Perspective

An approach in psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interaction with the environment.

Bimodal Distribution

A frequency distribution with two distinct peaks or modes, indicating two prevalent data values or ranges.

Biological Perspective

An approach that examines psychological phenomena through the lens of biology, emphasizing the influence of genetics, brain structures, and neurochemical processes on behavior.

Case Study

An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore causation and find underlying principles.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach that emphasizes internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, and problem-solving.

Confederates

Individuals who appear to be participants in an experiment but are actually working with the researcher.

Confidentiality

An ethical principle requiring that personal information shared by participants in research or therapy is not disclosed without their consent.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs.

Confounding Variables (Third Variables)

Extraneous factors in an experiment that can affect the dependent variable and lead to erroneous conclusions.

Control Groups

The group in experimental research that does not receive the treatment, serving as a baseline.

Convenience Sampling

A non-random sampling technique where participants are selected based on availability, which can introduce bias.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical measure that indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

Correlation Study

A research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables without inferring causation.

Cross-Sectional Study

A study analyzing data from a population at a specific point in time to assess outcomes.

Debriefing

The process of informing participants about the true nature of a study after its completion.

Deception

Intentionally withholding or providing false information to participants in a study to prevent bias.

Demand Characteristics

Cues in an experiment that might inform participants of the study's purpose, potentially influencing their behavior.

Dependent Variable

The variable in an experiment that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

Directionality Problem

The challenge in correlational research of determining which variable influences the other.

Distributions of a Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution where most data points cluster around the mean.

Double-Blind

An experimental design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment.

Effect Size

A quantitative measure of the strength of a phenomenon in research.

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach examining psychological traits through natural selection.

Experimental Groups

The group(s) in an experiment that receive the treatment or intervention being tested.

Experimental Study

A research method involving manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effects.

Experimenter Bias

A form of bias where a researcher's expectations influence participants' behavior or study results.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a hypothesis or theory that allows it to be disproven.

Generalization of Studies

The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to larger populations.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to perceive events as predictable after they occur.

Histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach emphasizing human growth, potential, and self-actualization.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Informed Consent

The ethical requirement for participants to be fully informed before agreeing to participate.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews research proposals for ethical compliance.

Likert Scale

A psychometric scale used to measure attitudes or opinions.

Explicit Memory

Memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.

Episodic Memory

A type of explicit memory involving recollection of specific events and experiences.

Semantic Memory

A type of explicit memory involving knowledge of facts and concepts not tied to personal experiences.

Implicit Memory

Memories not consciously recalled but that influence behavior and skills.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory related to skills and habits.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform a planned action at the appropriate time.

Long-Term Potentiation

A process strengthening synaptic connections through repeated activity.

Working Memory Model

A model of short-term memory emphasizing active manipulation of information.

Working Memory

A limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information.

Central Executive

The component of working memory that directs attention and manages information.

Phonological Loop

A working memory component that processes and temporarily stores verbal information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of the memory system.

Multi-Store Memory Process

A model describing memory as having sensory, short-term, and long-term stages.

Sensory Memory

The brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting several seconds.

Short-Term Memory

A memory store that temporarily holds information for processing.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of incidental information.

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

The process of getting information into the memory system.

Storage

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information.

Levels of Processing

A theory that deeper analysis leads to more enduring memory.

Structural Processing

Encoding the physical structure of stimuli.

Phonemic Processing

Encoding the sound of stimuli.

Semantic Processing

Encoding the meaning of stimuli.

Mnemonic Device

Memory aids that use imagery and organizational strategies.

Method of Loci

A mnemonic device associating information with specific locations.

Chunking

Grouping information into manageable units to enhance memory retention.

Spacing Effect

The phenomenon where distributed practice enhances long-term retention.

Mass Practice

Cramming study or practice into a short period.

Distributed Practice

Spreading study sessions over time for better retention.

Serial Position Effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle.

Primacy Effect

Better recall of the first items in a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall of the last items in a list.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge for better storage.

Autobiographical Memory

Memories of one's own life events.

Retrograde Amnesia

An inability to retrieve information from the past.

Anterograde Amnesia

An inability to form new memories after an injury.

Alzheimer's Disease

A progressive brain disorder marked by memory loss and cognitive decline.

Infantile Amnesia

The inability to recall memories from early childhood.

Recall

The ability to retrieve information without external cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information with cues.

Context-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when in the same environment where learning occurred.

Mood-Congruent Memory

The tendency to recall experiences consistent with one's current mood.

State-Dependent Memory

Improved recall when in the same state as when the information was encoded.

Testing Effect

Enhanced memory after retrieving information rather than rereading.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.

Forgetting Curve

A graph showing the decline of memory retention over time.

Encoding Failure

The inability to store information due to insufficient attention.

Proactive Interference

When older information interferes with recalling new information.

Retroactive Interference

When new information interferes with recalling older information.

Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon

The temporary inability to retrieve a known word.

Repression

Unconscious suppression of distressing memories.

Misinformation Effect

When misleading information distorts memory of an event.

Source Amnesia

The inability to remember the source of previously learned information.

Constructive Memory

Memory influenced by existing knowledge and expectations.

Concept

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype

A mental image or best example of a category.

Schema

A cognitive framework or concept that organizes information.

Assimilation

Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones for new information.