AP Psych Semester 1 Review
Unit 0-
Behavioral Perspective: An approach in psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they're learned through interaction with the environment. It emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.
Bimodal Distribution: A frequency distribution with two distinct peaks or modes, indicating two prevalent data values or ranges.
Biological Perspective: An approach that examines psychological phenomena through the lens of biology, emphasizing the influence of genetics, brain structures, and neurochemical processes on behavior and mental processes.
Case Study: An in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event to explore causation and find underlying principles. Case studies provide detailed qualitative data but may not be generalizable.
Cognitive Perspective: An approach that emphasizes internal mental processes such as thinking, memory, language, and problem-solving, and how they influence behavior.
Confederates: Individuals who appear to be participants in an experiment but are actually working with the researcher to manipulate the social context.
Confidentiality: An ethical principle requiring that personal information shared by participants in research or therapy is not disclosed without their consent.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses.
Confounding Variables (Third Variables): Extraneous factors in an experiment that can affect the dependent variable, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions if not controlled.
Control Groups: In experimental research, the group that does not receive the treatment or intervention, serving as a baseline to compare the effects of the independent variable.
Convenience Sampling: A non-random sampling technique where participants are selected based on their availability and willingness to take part. This method can introduce bias and limit generalizability.
Correlation Coefficient: A statistical measure (denoted as 'r') that indicates the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables, ranging from -1 to +1.
Correlation Study: A research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine if they are associated, without inferring causation.
Cross-Sectional Study: A study that analyzes data from a population at a specific point in time, often used to assess the prevalence of an outcome or to examine relationships between variables.
Debriefing: The process of informing participants about the true nature of a study after its completion, including any deception used, to ensure they leave without distress or misconceptions.
Deception: Intentionally withholding information or providing false information to participants in a study to prevent bias, which must be justified and followed by debriefing.
Demand Characteristics: Cues or signals in an experiment that might inform participants of the study's purpose, potentially influencing their behavior and compromising the validity of the results.
Dependent Variable: The variable in an experiment that is measured to assess the effect of the independent variable; it's the outcome of interest.
Directionality Problem: In correlational research, the challenge of determining which variable influences the other, making it difficult to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Distributions of a Normal Curve: A symmetrical, bell-shaped frequency distribution where most data points cluster around the mean, with probabilities for values determined by the standard deviation.
Double-Blind: An experimental design in which neither the participants nor the researchers know who is receiving the treatment or the placebo, reducing bias.
Effect Size: A quantitative measure of the magnitude of a phenomenon, indicating the strength of the relationship between variables or the extent of an experimental effect.
Evolutionary Perspective: An approach that examines psychological traits and behaviors through the lens of natural selection, considering how they may have evolved to solve adaptive problems.
Experimental Groups: In an experiment, the group(s) that receive the treatment or intervention being tested, as opposed to the control group.
Experimental Study: A research method involving the manipulation of an independent variable to observe its effect on a dependent variable, allowing for conclusions about causality.
Experimenter Bias: A form of bias where the researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study inadvertently influence the participants' behavior or the interpretation of results.
Falsifiable: A characteristic of a hypothesis or theory that allows it to be disproven through empirical observation or experimentation.
Generalization of Studies: The extent to which findings from a study can be applied to larger populations or different contexts beyond the specific sample studied.
Hindsight Bias: The tendency to perceive events as having been predictable after they have already occurred, often leading to an overestimation of one's ability to have foreseen the outcome.
Histogram: A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where data is grouped into bins, and the frequency of each bin is depicted by the height of the corresponding bar.
Humanistic Perspective: An approach that emphasizes human growth, potential, and self-actualization, focusing on free will and the human capacity for self-improvement.
Hypothesis: A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables, often derived from a theory.
Independent Variable: The variable in an experiment that is manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.
Informed Consent: The ethical requirement that participants are fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in a study and voluntarily agree to participate.
Institutional Review Board (IRB): A committee that reviews research proposals to ensure that ethical standards are met and that participants' rights and welfare are protected.
Likert Scale: A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires to measure attitudes or opinions, typically offering
Unit 1- Memory
Explicit Memory: Memories of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (also known as declarative memory).
Episodic Memory: A type of explicit memory involving the recollection of specific events, situations, and experiences.
Semantic Memory: A type of explicit memory involving knowledge of facts and concepts not tied to personal experiences.
Implicit Memory: Memories that are not consciously recalled but influence behavior and skills (e.g., procedural memory).
Procedural Memory: A type of implicit memory related to skills and habits, such as riding a bike or typing.
Prospective Memory: Remembering to perform a planned action or intention at the appropriate time.
Long-Term Potentiation: A process by which synaptic connections are strengthened through repeated activity, thought to be a mechanism for learning and memory.
Working Memory Model: A model of short-term memory emphasizing active manipulation of information, involving components like the central executive, phonological loop, and visuospatial sketchpad.
Working Memory: A limited-capacity system for temporary storage and manipulation of information necessary for complex tasks such as comprehension, learning, and reasoning.
Central Executive: The component of working memory that directs attention and manages information from the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.
Phonological Loop: A component of working memory that processes and temporarily stores verbal and auditory information.
Visuospatial Sketchpad: A component of working memory that processes and temporarily stores visual and spatial information.
Long-Term Memory: The relatively permanent and unlimited storehouse of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experiences.
Multi-Store Memory Process: A model describing memory as composed of three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Sensory Memory: The brief storage of sensory information.
Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory, lasting a fraction of a second.
Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory, lasting several seconds.
Short-Term Memory: A limited-capacity memory store that can hold information temporarily for processing (about 7 items for 20–30 seconds).
Automatic Processing: The unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency.
Effortful Processing: Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.
Encoding: The process of getting information into the memory system.
Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
Retrieval: The process of accessing information stored in memory.
Levels of Processing: A theory stating that deeper levels of analysis produce more enduring memory.
Structural Processing: Encoding the physical structure of stimuli.
Phonemic Processing: Encoding the sound of stimuli.
Semantic Processing: Encoding the meaning of stimuli, leading to better retention.
Mnemonic Device: Memory aids that use vivid imagery and organizational strategies.
Method of Loci: A mnemonic device where one associates information with specific locations in a familiar place.
Chunking: Grouping information into manageable units to aid memory.
Spacing Effect: The phenomenon where distributed practice leads to better long-term retention compared to massed practice.
Mass Practice: Cramming study or practice sessions into a short period.
Distributed Practice: Spreading study or practice sessions over time.
Serial Position Effect: The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than the middle items.
Primacy Effect: Better recall of the first items.
Recency Effect: Better recall of the last items.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information to keep it in short-term memory.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Connecting new information to existing knowledge for better long-term storage.
Autobiographical Memory: Memories of one's own life events.
Retrograde Amnesia: An inability to retrieve information from the past.
Anterograde Amnesia: An inability to form new memories after a brain injury.
Alzheimer's Disease: A progressive brain disorder characterized by memory loss, cognitive decline, and personality changes.
Infantile Amnesia: The inability of adults to recall memories from early childhood.
Recall: The ability to retrieve information without external cues.
Recognition: Identifying previously learned information with the help of cues.
Context-Dependent Memory: The improved ability to recall information when in the same environment where it was learned.
Mood-Congruent Memory: The tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s current mood.
State-Dependent Memory: The improved ability to recall information when in the same state as when it was encoded.
Testing Effect: Enhanced memory after retrieving information rather than just rereading it.
Metacognition: Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.
Forgetting Curve: A graph showing the decline of memory retention over time.
Encoding Failure: The inability to store information in memory due to insufficient attention or effort.
Proactive Interference: When older information interferes with the recall of new information.
Retroactive Interference: When new information interferes with the recall of older information.
Tip of the Tongue Phenomenon: The temporary inability to retrieve a known word.
Repression: Unconscious suppression of distressing memories.
Misinformation Effect: When misleading information distorts memory of an event.
Source Amnesia: The inability to remember where or how previously learned information was acquired.
Constructive Memory: Memory that is influenced by existing knowledge, expectations, and other information.
Unit 2
Concept: A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.
Prototype: A mental image or best example of a category, used for classification.
Schema: A cognitive framework or concept that organizes and interprets information.
Assimilation: Incorporating new experiences into existing schemas without altering them.
Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information.
Algorithms: Step-by-step problem-solving procedures that guarantee a solution.
Heuristic: A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that simplifies decision-making but does not guarantee accuracy.
Stereotype: A generalized belief about a group of people.
Representative Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something based on how well it matches a prototype.
Availability Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory (e.g., vivid or recent events).
Mental Set: A tendency to approach problems in a way that has been successful in the past.
Priming: The unconscious activation of associations in memory.
Framing: The way an issue or question is posed, which can significantly affect decisions and judgments.
Gambler's Fallacy: The mistaken belief that past random events influence future outcomes.
Sunk Cost Fallacy: Continuing a behavior or endeavor because of previously invested resources (time, money, effort) rather than current costs or benefits.
Executive Functions: Higher-order cognitive processes such as planning, decision-making, and self-control.
Creativity: The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.
Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple, unique solutions to a problem.
Convergent Thinking: Narrowing down multiple ideas to find a single best solution.
Functional Fixedness: The tendency to think of things only in terms of their usual functions, hindering problem-solving.
Belief Perseverance: Clinging to one’s initial beliefs despite evidence to the contrary.
Confirmation Bias: The tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms one’s preconceptions.
Overconfidence: The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one’s beliefs or judgments.
Perception and Depth Cues
Convergence: A binocular depth cue where the eyes turn inward when focusing on a close object.
Monocular Depth Cues: Depth cues available to either eye alone, such as:
Relative Clarity: Clearer objects are perceived as closer.
Relative Size: Smaller objects are perceived as farther away.
Texture Gradient: Finer, less detailed textures are perceived as farther away.
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.
Interposition: Objects blocking others are perceived as closer.
Visual Perceptual Constancy: The ability to perceive objects as unchanging despite changes in sensory input (e.g., size, shape, or color constancy).
Phi Phenomenon: The illusion of movement created by rapidly blinking lights in sequence.
Cocktail Party Effect: The ability to focus on one voice among a crowd while filtering out others, but still notice personally relevant information like one’s name.
Selective Attention: Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus while ignoring others.
Change Blindness: Failing to notice changes in the environment when attention is directed elsewhere.
Binocular Depth Cues: Depth cues that depend on the use of both eyes, such as:
Retinal Disparity: The difference between the images seen by each eye, which the brain uses to compute distance.
Gestalt Psychology Principles
Gestalt principles describe how humans naturally organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes.
Closure: The tendency to fill in gaps to perceive a complete object.
Figure-Ground: Differentiating an object (figure) from its background.
Proximity: Objects close to one another are perceived as a group.
Similarity: Objects that look similar are perceived as part of the same group.
Unit 3
Consciousness: Awareness of oneself and the environment.
Wakefulness: A state of being alert and aware of external stimuli.
Sleep: A natural, periodic state of rest characterized by reduced awareness and physical inactivity.
Circadian Rhythm: The 24-hour biological clock regulating sleep-wake cycles and other bodily functions.
Jet Lag: Disruption of the circadian rhythm caused by rapid travel across time zones.
Shift Work: Work schedules that interfere with the natural circadian rhythm, often leading to sleep disturbances.
NREM 1-3: Non-rapid eye movement sleep stages:
NREM-1: Light sleep, marked by slowed breathing and hypnagogic sensations (e.g., falling).
NREM-2: Deeper relaxation with sleep spindles (bursts of brain activity).
NREM-3: Deepest sleep, characterized by delta waves and restorative processes.
Hypnagogic Sensations: Vivid sensory experiences, such as feeling like you're falling, occurring at the transition into sleep.
REM Sleep: A sleep stage marked by rapid eye movement, vivid dreams, and increased brain activity.
REM Rebound: Increased REM sleep following deprivation of REM sleep.
Activation-Synthesis Theory: Dreams result from the brain's attempt to make sense of random neural activity during REM sleep.
Consolidation Dream Theory: Dreams help process and store information, supporting memory consolidation.
Memory Consolidation: The process by which short-term memories are transformed into stable long-term memories during sleep.
Insomnia: Difficulty falling or staying asleep.
Narcolepsy: A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks and sudden transitions to REM sleep.
REM Sleep Behavior Disorder: A sleep disorder where individuals physically act out dreams.
Sleep Apnea: Repeated interruptions of breathing during sleep.
Somnambulism: Sleepwalking, typically occurring during NREM-3 sleep.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus: A cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that regulates circadian rhythms using light cues.
Sleep Deprivation: Lack of sufficient sleep, leading to cognitive and physical impairments.
Sensation and Perception
Threshold: The level of stimulation required to detect a stimulus.
Transduction: The conversion of physical energy (e.g., light, sound) into neural signals.
Neurochemical: Pertaining to chemicals that affect the nervous system.
Absolute Threshold: The minimum stimulus intensity detectable 50% of the time.
Sensation: The process of detecting and encoding environmental stimuli.
Just Noticeable Difference (JND): The smallest difference in stimulus intensity that can be detected.
Sensory Adaptation: Reduced sensitivity to a stimulus after prolonged exposure.
Weber's Law: The principle that the JND is proportional to the original stimulus intensity.
Synesthesia: A condition where one sense triggers another (e.g., seeing colors when hearing music).
Vision
Retina: The light-sensitive layer of the eye where photoreceptors convert light into neural signals.
Lens: The transparent structure that focuses light on the retina.
Accommodation: The process by which the lens changes shape to focus light.
Nearsightedness: A condition where close objects are clear but distant objects are blurry.
Farsightedness: A condition where distant objects are clear but close objects are blurry.
Rods: Photoreceptors sensitive to low light and peripheral vision.
Cones: Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and detail.
Trichromatic Theory: The theory that the retina contains three color receptors (red, green, blue).
Opponent-Process Theory: The theory that color perception depends on opposing retinal processes (e.g., red-green, blue-yellow).
Photoreceptors: Specialized cells (rods and cones) in the retina.
Fovea: The central focal point of the retina with the highest concentration of cones.
Afterimage: A visual image that persists after a stimulus is removed.
Ganglion Cells: Retinal neurons that send visual information to the brain.
Dichromatism: Partial color blindness due to one malfunctioning cone type.
Monochromatism: Total color blindness, with only one functioning cone type.
Prosopagnosia: The inability to recognize faces.
Blindsight: The ability to respond to visual stimuli without conscious awareness.
Blind Spot: The area where the optic nerve leaves the eye, lacking photoreceptors.
Auditory System
Pitch: The perceived frequency of a sound.
Amplitude: The height of a sound wave, determining loudness.
Place Theory: The theory that different parts of the cochlea are activated by different frequencies.
Volley Theory: The theory that groups of neurons fire in rapid succession to represent high frequencies.
Frequency Theory: The theory that the frequency of neural impulses matches the frequency of a sound.
Sound Localization: The ability to determine the location of a sound source.
Conduction Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to the mechanical system conducting sound waves.
Sensorineural Deafness: Hearing loss caused by damage to the cochlea’s receptor cells or auditory nerves.
Chemical and Skin Senses
Olfactory: Relating to the sense of smell.
Pheromones: Chemical signals that influence the behavior of other individuals.
Gustation: The sense of taste, including sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami, and oleogustus (fatty taste).
Super Taster: An individual with heightened sensitivity to taste.
Non-Taster: An individual with fewer taste receptors and less sensitivity to taste.
Medium Taster: Falls between super tasters and non-tasters.
Taste Receptors: Specialized cells for detecting taste stimuli.
Skin Receptors: Sensory neurons that detect pressure, temperature (hot/cold), and pain.
Gate Control Theory: A theory that pain signals can be blocked or modulated by neural mechanisms in the spinal cord.
Phantom Limb Sensation: Perception of pain or sensation in a missing limb.
Vestibular and Kinesthetic Senses
Vestibular Sense: The sense of balance and spatial orientation.
Semicircular Canal: Structures in the inner ear that detect rotational movement.
Kinesthesis: The sense of body position and movement.
Unit 4
Heredity and Environment
Heredity: The transmission of genetic characteristics from parents to offspring.
Environmental Factors: External influences such as culture, education, and experiences that shape behavior and development.
Nature vs. Nurture: The debate over whether genetics (nature) or environment (nurture) plays a larger role in shaping behavior and traits.
Eugenics: A controversial practice aimed at improving the genetic quality of the human population.
Evolutionary Perspective: An approach that examines how natural selection and adaptation influence behavior and mental processes.
Twin Studies: Research comparing identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment.
Family Studies: Research examining similarities among family members to understand genetic and environmental influences.
Adoption Studies: Research comparing adopted children to their biological and adoptive parents to differentiate genetic and environmental effects.
Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS): Composed of the brain and spinal cord, it processes and responds to information.
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Connects the CNS to the rest of the body and includes sensory and motor neurons.
Autonomic Nervous System (ANS): Regulates involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate and digestion.
Somatic Nervous System (SNS): Controls voluntary movements and relays sensory and motor information.
Parasympathetic NS: Promotes relaxation and conserves energy by slowing bodily functions.
Sympathetic NS: Prepares the body for "fight or flight" responses during stress.
Neurons and Neural Processes
Neurons: Nerve cells that transmit information through electrical and chemical signals.
Glial Cells: Supportive cells that protect, nourish, and maintain neurons.
Reflex Arc: A direct pathway where sensory input leads to an immediate motor response.
Sensory Neurons: Transmit sensory information from the body to the CNS.
Motor Neurons: Transmit motor commands from the CNS to muscles.
Interneurons: Connect neurons within the CNS and enable complex processing.
All-or-Nothing Principle: A neuron fires completely or not at all once its threshold is reached.
Depolarization: The process by which a neuron's membrane potential becomes less negative, leading to firing.
Refractory Period: A period after firing when a neuron cannot fire again immediately.
Resting Potential: The stable, negative charge of a neuron at rest.
Reuptake: The reabsorption of neurotransmitters by the presynaptic neuron.
Threshold: The minimum level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse.
Multiple Sclerosis: A condition where the immune system attacks the myelin sheath, impairing neural communication.
Myasthenia Gravis: An autoimmune disorder causing weakness in the skeletal muscles.
Neurotransmitters and Hormones
Excitatory: Neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing.
Inhibitory: Neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing.
Dopamine: Influences movement, reward, and pleasure.
Serotonin: Regulates mood, sleep, and appetite.
Norepinephrine: Affects alertness and arousal.
Glutamate: The primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
GABA: The primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Endorphins: Reduce pain and induce feelings of pleasure.
Substance P: Involved in pain perception.
Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle movement and memory.
Hormones: Chemical messengers released by glands:
Adrenaline: Increases arousal and energy during stress.
Leptin: Regulates hunger and fat storage.
Ghrelin: Stimulates appetite.
Melatonin: Regulates sleep-wake cycles.
Oxytocin: Promotes bonding and social behaviors.
Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive Drugs: Substances that alter mood, perception, or behavior.
Agonist: Enhances the action of a neurotransmitter.
Antagonist: Blocks the action of a neurotransmitter.
Reuptake Inhibitor: Prevents the reabsorption of neurotransmitters, increasing their availability.
Stimulant: Increases neural activity:
Caffeine: Enhances alertness.
Cocaine: Intensifies feelings of euphoria and energy.
Depressant: Slows neural activity:
Alcohol: Reduces inhibitions and slows CNS activity.
Hallucinogen: Alters perceptions:
Marijuana: Distorts sensory experiences and perceptions.
Opioid: Relieves pain and induces euphoria:
Heroin: Highly addictive narcotic with severe withdrawal symptoms.
Tolerance: The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect.
Addiction: Compulsive use of a substance despite harmful consequences.
Withdrawal: Physical and psychological symptoms experienced when stopping drug use.
Brain Structures and Functions
Brain Stem: Controls basic life functions like breathing and heart rate.
Medulla: Regulates vital functions like heartbeat and respiration.
Reticular Activating System: Maintains arousal and consciousness.
Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.
Cerebral Cortex: The brain's outer layer, responsible for higher cognitive functions.
Left and Right Hemisphere: The brain's two halves, each with specialized functions.
Thalamus: Relays sensory information to the cortex.
Hypothalamus: Regulates homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, and temperature.
Pituitary Gland: The "master gland" controlling hormone release.
Hippocampus: Involved in memory formation.
Amygdala: Processes emotions, especially fear and aggression.
Corpus Callosum: Connects the two hemispheres, allowing communication.
Occipital Lobe: Processes visual information.
Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory input and spatial orientation.
Temporal Lobe: Processes auditory information and memory.
Frontal Lobe: Responsible for decision-making, planning, and motor control.
Somatosensory Cortex: Processes sensory input from the body.
Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in reasoning and complex thought.
Motor Cortex: Controls voluntary movements.
Split-Brain Research: Studies patients with severed corpus callosum to understand lateralization.
Broca's Area: Involved in speech production.
Wernicke's Area: Involved in language comprehension.
Contralateral Organization: The brain's organization where each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Aphasia: Impairment in language production or comprehension.
Brain Plasticity: The brain's ability to adapt and reorganize itself.
Neural Components
EEG: Measures electrical activity in the brain.
fMRI: Tracks blood flow to indicate brain activity.
Lesioning: Intentional destruction of brain tissue to study its function.
Mirror Neurons: Neurons that activate when observing or performing an action.
Pons: Regulates sleep and arousal.
Synapse: The gap between neurons where communication occurs.
Dendrites: Branch-like structures receiving signals from other neurons.
Axon: Transmits signals from the cell body to other neurons.
Axon Terminal: The endpoint of an axon, where neurotransmitters are released.
Terminal Buttons: Release neurotransmitters into the synapse.
Myelin Sheath: Fatty layer insulating axons, speeding up signal transmission.
Unit 5
Acquisition/Association - In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response.
Associative Learning - Learning that certain events occur together.
Behavioral Perspective - The scientific study of observable behavior, and its explanation by principles of learning.
Biological Predispositions - The idea that people and animals are inherently inclined to form associations between certain stimuli and responses due to evolutionary history.
Classical Conditioning - The process in which a neutral stimulus acquires the ability to influence the future probability of a particular response by virtue of being paired with another stimulus that naturally enhances such probability. This is a learned association and not innate.
Cognitive Map - A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.
Conditioned Response (CR) - In classical conditioning, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) - In classical conditioning, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR).
Conditioning - To inculcate a response or a behavior in an organism by means of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or other behaviorist paradigms (see behaviorism). The term implies that the learning is largely automatic, based on processes more like reflexes than conscious mental activity.
Continuous Reinforcement - Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.
Counter Conditioning - Behavior therapy procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors.
Extinction: behavior fades away when no longer rewarded
Fixed Interval - In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed.
Fixed Ratio - In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses.
Generalization - The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Habituation - Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus.
Higher Order - A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.
Insight Learning - A cognitive form of learning involving the mental rearrangement or restructuring of the elements in a problem to achieve a sudden understanding of the problem and arrive at a solution.
Instinct Drift - The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.
Latent Learning - Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Law of Effect- behaviors which are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated while behaviors followed by negative consequences are less likely to occur.
Learned Helplessness - The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.
Learning - The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors.
Learning by Observing Others (Observational Learning) - Observing and imitating others.
Modeling - The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Negative Punishment - Behavior that results because some stimulus or circumstance is removed as a consequence of a response.
Negative Reinforcement - Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing aversive stimuli.
One-Trial Conditioning - States that learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated pairings.
Operant Conditioning - A type of learning in which a behavior becomes more likely to recur if followed by a reinforcer or less likely to recur if followed by a punisher.
Partial Reinforcement - Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction.
Positive Punishment - Behavior that is decreased because of the addition of a consequence.
Positive Reinforcement - Increasing behaviors by adding stimuli reinforcers.
Primary Reinforcement - An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need.
Secondary Reinforcement - Do not occur naturally and need to be learned
Shaping - An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.
Social Learning Theory - The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
Spontaneous Recovery - The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Stimulus Discrimination - The ability to distinguish among different stimuli (e.g., to distinguish a circle from an ellipse) and to respond differently to them.
Superstitious Learning -people develop false beliefs about a connection between an action and a positive outcome.
Taste Aversion - The association of the taste of a food or fluid with an aversive stimulus (usually gastrointestinal discomfort or illness), leading to a very rapid and long-lasting aversion to, or at the least a decreased preference for, that particular taste.
Unconditioned Response (UR) - In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occurring response (such as salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (US) (such as food in the mouth).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US) - In classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers an unconditioned response (UR).
Variable Ratio - In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses.
Variable Interval- a schedule of reinforcement where behavior is rewarded after an unpredictable amount of time has passed.
Vicarious learning- the process of acquiring knowledge or skills by observing the behaviors and consequences of others