Psych Concepts

Galton's Sensory Theory of Intelligence

Intelligence = result of one's sensory capacity.

Key components of Galton's Sensory Theory

Better sensory abilities (vision, hearing, etc.) → more knowledge.

Measurement in Galton's Sensory Theory

Measured with sensory tests (reaction time, acuity).

Disproof of Galton's Sensory Theory

Weak correlations with actual IQ; brilliant people with poor senses; Cattell's data.

Spearman's g and s

Intelligence has a general factor plus specific abilities.

Components of Spearman's Theory

g: general intelligence, shared across all IQ items (explains positive correlations).

Specific abilities in Spearman's Theory

s: specific abilities for each task (e.g., spatial, vocabulary).

Cattell & Horn: Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence

Intelligence has two major forms.

Fluid Intelligence

Capacity to learn new ways of solving problems, novel reasoning; declines with age; linked to frontal gray matter.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge of the world; increases with age; moderately related to openness to experience.

Gardner's Multiple Intelligences

Intelligence is made of several independent 'frames of mind.'

Components of Gardner's Theory

Linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic, (existential tentative).

Evidence for Gardner's Theory

Brain damage affecting one ability but not others; exceptional talents in specific domains.

Criticisms of Gardner's Theory

Vague, hard to test, may reflect talents vs. separate intelligences, may still be expressions of g.

Sternberg's Triarchic Theory

Three types of intelligence.

Components of Sternberg's Theory

Analytical: logical reasoning, 'book smarts,' close to g.

Practical Intelligence in Sternberg's Theory

Solving real-world problems, 'street smarts,' related to social intelligence.

Creative Intelligence in Sternberg's Theory

Generating novel, effective solutions.

Evidence for Sternberg's Theory

Practical and creative predict outcomes (e.g., job performance) beyond traditional IQ.

IQ Testing & Psychometrics

Binet-Simon / Stanford-Binet: IQ tests with diverse reasoning items, age norms to compare individuals.

Wechsler Tests

Overall IQ plus verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, processing speed.

Reliability of IQ Tests

High test-retest reliability in adults; low before age 2-3 because tests measure sensory abilities, not abstract reasoning.

Validity of IQ Tests

Concurrent: correlates with outcomes measured at same time.

Predictive Validity of IQ

IQ predicts academic/occupational success, health outcomes, and criminal tendencies (with other factors like poverty).

Family Studies on IQ

IQ runs in families, but can't separate genes vs. shared environment.

Twin Studies on IQ

MZ twins more similar than DZ → genetic influence (heritability ~40-70%).

Adoption Studies on IQ

Deprived → enriched homes: IQ increases → environmental effect.

Similar IQ in Adoption Studies

Similar IQ between adopted kids and biological parents → genetic effect.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Children move through qualitatively different stages of thinking.

Key Stages in Piaget's Theory

Sensorimotor (0-2), Preoperational (2-7), Concrete Operations (7-11), Formal Operations (adolescence+).

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory

Cognitive development is driven by social/cultural interaction.

Scaffolding in Vygotsky's Theory

Temporary support from more knowledgeable others; gradually removed as child masters tasks.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

Range where a child can't yet do a task alone but can with assistance.

Erikson's Psychosocial Stages

Personality develops across the lifespan via eight crises.

Trust vs. Mistrust Stage

0-2: Is the world safe? Caring vs. neglectful caregivers → trust vs. mistrust.

Overrestriction

Autonomy vs. dependence/low self-esteem.

Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6)

Taking initiative in play/exploration vs. guilt and fear of disapproval.

Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence)

Discovering 'who am I?'; identity achievement vs. ongoing confusion, with risk for later problems.

Temperament

Basic emotional style; easy, difficult, slow-to-warm, behaviorally inhibited, influenced by genes & environment.

Harlow's Attachment Research

Cloth vs. wire mother: contact comfort more important than food in forming attachment.

Ainsworth's Strange Situation (attachment theory)

Secure (≈60%): upset when mom leaves, joyful on return, use her as secure base.

Insecure-avoidant

Indifferent to departure/return.

Insecure-anxious

Panic on departure, mixed emotions on return.

Disorganized

Confused, inconsistent responses (added by Mary Main).

Evidence issues

Mono-operation bias (single lab task), attachment styles can change, temperament is a third variable.

Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal

Cross-sectional = different ages at one time (cohort effects risk), longitudinal = same individuals over time (attrition, cost).

Cognitive Theories (James-Lange, Cannon-Bard)

Emotions depend on interpretation. James-Lange: emotion = interpretation of bodily changes.

Drive Reduction Theory (Hull & Hebb)

Motive to minimize unpleasant states and maintain psychological homeostasis.

Murray's Needs

Primary (biological) vs. secondary (psychological) needs; needs organize perception and action, are dynamic.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Basic needs at bottom (physiological, safety) must be met before higher (belonging, esteem) and self-actualization at the top.

Yerkes-Dodson Law

Inverted-U relation between arousal and performance; optimal point depends on task.

Approach vs. Avoidance

Some drives lead toward goals (approach), others away from negative stimuli (avoidance).

Stress as a Transaction (Lazarus)

Stress = subjective experience shaped by appraisal.

Primary appraisal

Is the event harmful?

Secondary appraisal

Can I cope with it?

Coping

Effective use of resources/strategies to deal with stressors.

Problem-focused coping

Dealing with the problem itself; best when high control.

Emotion-focused coping

Managing emotions about the problem; best when low control.

Goodness-of-fit hypothesis

Coping is most effective when strategy matches degree of control.

SRRS (Holmes & Rahe)

Life events scale; number of major events predicts illness, but ignores chronic stress and causality direction.

Hassles Scale

Minor daily events; frequency and severity predict health better than major life events.

Selye's General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

Theory: universal stress response pattern; prolonged stress harms health.

Stages of GAS

Alarm: fight-or-flight activation; Resistance: attempt to adapt; Exhaustion: resources depleted.

Hardiness (3 C's)

Control, challenge, commitment; stress-resistant personality.

Type A Personality

Competitive achievement motivation, time urgency, hostility (toxic core predicting CHD).

Rumination

Repetitive focus on negative feelings/events; linked to depression and worse adjustment.