Human Anatomy Exam 1

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure of body parts

What is physiology?

The study of the function of body parts

What are the six distinct levels of increasing complexity in the body?

• Atoms

• Molecules

• Cells (basic unit of life)

• Tissues

• Organs

• Organ Systems → Organism

What is homeostasis?

The maintenance of stable internal chemical and physical conditions (like temperature, pH, glucose) despite changes in the external environment

What are organ systems?

Groups of organs that work together to perform specific functions. No system works alone — they all interact to maintain homeostasis

What is the function of the integumentary system?

Protects tissues, regulates temperature, prevents water loss

What are the structures of the integumentary system?

Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands

What is the function of the skeletal system?

Provides movement, support, blood cell formation, and mineral storage (calcium, phosphorus

What are the structures of the skeletal system?

Bones, ligaments, cartilage

What is the function of the muscular system?

Provides movement, generates heat (shivering), helps circulation of blood and lymph

What are the structures of the muscular system?

Muscles of the body

What is the function of the nervous system?

Coordinates body activities by detecting stimuli, processing information, and sending rapid electrical signals

What are the structures of the nervous system?

Brain, neurons, nerves

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Regulates body processes through chemical messengers (hormones)

What are the structures of the endocrine system?

Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, ovaries, testes

What is the function of the digestive system?

Breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, provides energy balance

What are the structures of the digestive system?

Esophagus, stomach, intestines

What is the function of the circulatory system?

Transports oxygen, CO₂, nutrients, hormones, and waste; regulates temperature and pH

What are the structures of the circulatory system?

Veins, arteries, heart, aorta

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

Returns excess fluid to blood, fights infections, protects against disease

What are the structures of the lymphatic system?

Lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels

What is the function of the urinary system?

Filters wastes from blood, regulates water and electrolyte balance, maintains blood pH

What are the structures of the urinary system?

Kidneys, urinary bladder

What is the function of the reproductive system?

Produces sperm and eggs; hormones influence bone density, muscle mass, and sex characteristics

What are the structures of the reproductive system?

Testes, ovaries, uterus, vagina, penis

What is the function of the respiratory system?

Obtains oxygen, removes CO₂, helps regulate blood pH, supports cellular respiration

What are the structures of the respiratory system?

Lungs, trachea

What are phospholipids and why are they important?

Amphipathic molecules (polar head + nonpolar tails) that form the cell membrane, creating a barrier between the inside and outside of the cell

What types of molecules have high vs. low permeability in the membrane?

• High: Small, nonpolar molecules (O₂, CO₂, N₂)

• Moderate: Small, uncharged polar molecules (H₂O)

• Low: Large polar molecules (glucose, sucrose)

• Very low: Ions (Na⁺, Cl⁻, K⁺)

What is diffusion across the membrane?

Passive movement of molecules down their concentration gradient; efficient for small, nonpolar molecules like O₂ and CO₂. No energy required

What is facilitated diffusion across the membrane?

Passive transport (down the gradient) with the help of membrane proteins such as channels (aquaporins, ion channels) or carriers (GLUT-1)

What is active transport?

Movement of molecules against their gradient, requiring ATP. Example: sodium-potassium pump, which creates concentration and electrochemical gradients

What is the main function of the nucleus?

Stores genetic material (DNA), organizes it into chromatin, and contains the nucleolus, where rRNA is made and ribosome subunits are assembled

What are ribosomes and their two main locations?

Non-membranous structures that synthesize proteins.

• Free ribosomes: make proteins for the cytosol/organelles

• Bound ribosomes (on RER): make proteins for secretion, membranes, or endomembrane system

What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)?

Organelle studded with ribosomes that synthesizes, folds, and processes proteins destined for membranes, organelles, or secretion

What is the smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)?

Organelle without ribosomes; synthesizes lipids, detoxifies harmful molecules, and stores Ca²⁺ ions

What is the Golgi apparatus and its two sides?

Organelle that modifies, sorts, and ships proteins

• Cis face: receives proteins from RER

• Trans face: ships proteins to organelles or the cell surface

What are lysosomes?

Animal-cell organelles containing ~40 digestive enzymes that break down macromolecules and recycle materials

What are peroxisomes?

Organelles that carry out redox reactions, detoxify harmful compounds (e.g., ethanol), and contain catalase to break down hydrogen peroxide. Plant glyoxysomes oxidize fats for energy storage

What are mitochondria and what makes them unique?

ATP-producing organelles with a double membrane (inner folds = cristae). They have their own DNA and ribosomes, allowing partial autonomy

What is epithelial tissue?

Tissue that covers the body and lines organs/cavities; made of tightly joined cells forming protective and functional barriers

What is connective tissue?

Tissue that binds and supports other tissues, with cells scattered in an extracellular matrix (e.g., bone, blood, cartilage, fat)

What is muscle tissue and its key feature?

Tissue responsible for movement; made of actin and myosin filaments that contract. Includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth types

What is nervous tissue?

Tissue specialized for processing and transmitting information; contains neurons (send signals) and glial cells (support neurons)