A+P Lab🔬 Test 1!

Homeostasis?

Means balance

• Maintenance of internal environment of the body in a narrow range of value

(Physiological limit)

• Challenges to homeostasis resulting in disease or death

• Example: Blood pressure (120/80), Temperature (98.6 F), Breathing rate (16-18/minute)

• Diseases are evidenced by signs and symptoms

• Signs are objective changes that can be observed by a Physician: Examples are rash,

swelling, color changes of skin, changes in blood pressure etc.

• Symptoms are subjective changes that person can experienced: Examples are nausea,

spinning of head, pain abdomen, headache etc.

Negative feedback mechanism?

• Homeostatic, Good for health, and common

• Corrects any deviation of the controlled conditions (Temp, BP, Blood sugar etc.)

• Return abnormal condition to normal towards range of value around a set point

Positive feedback mechanism?

• Enhance the deviation

• Non-homeostatic

• Not good for health

• Uncommon

• Makes bad situation worse

• Childbirth is an example of physiological positive feedback mechanism

Components of feedback system?

1. Sensory Receptors: body structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition and sends input to a control center

2. Control center: for example, the brain, sets the narrow range of value of a controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates the input it receives from receptors, and generates output commands when they are needed.

3. An effector: structure that receives output from the control center and produces a response or effect that changes the controlled condition

Anatomical position?

• Person is in erect posture

• Head and face directed forward

• Upper limbs are at the sides

• Palms turned forward

• All descriptions of the structures of the body refer to anatomical position

Anatomical planes?

are imaginary planes which separate the body/organ into different parts.

 They are used radiology and in imaging system

Frontal/coronal plane?

Separates the body or organ into front and back parts.

Transverse plane?

Separates the body or organ into upper (top) and lower (bottom) parts.

Transverse plane?

Separates the body or organ into upper (top) and lower (bottom) parts.

Oblique plane?

separates the body or organ obliquely.

Anatomical directions?

• Always in pairs

• Having opposite meanings

• Used to learn the relationships of the structures of the body

Superior?

Close to or towards up or head.

Inferior?

Away from head or towards bottom or leg.

Anterior/ventral?

Towards front.

Posterior/dorsal?

Towards back.

Medial?

Close to midline or median plane.

Lateral?

Away from midline.

Proximal?

Close to point of attachment sites of the body.

Distal?

Away from attachment sites of the body.

Superfical?

Close to the surface of the body.

Deep?

Away from the surface of the body.

Contralateral?

Opposite sided organs/structures.

Ipsilateral?

Same sided organs/structures.

Prone?

Laying on the belly, face downwards.

Supine?

Laying on the back, face upwards.

Anatomical regions and markings

Cephalic (Head) is a region

• Body markings in Cephalic region?

• Buccal: Cheek

• Cranial: Skull

• Facial: Face

• Frontal: Forehead

• Mental: Chin

• Nasal: Nose

• Occipital: Base of the skull

• Oral: Mouth

• Orbital/Ocular: Eye

• Otic: Auricle or Pinna

• Temporal: Temple

Cervical (Neck) is a region?

• Nuchal: Back of the neck

Trunk is a region?

three smaller subregions: Thorax, Abdomen, Pelvis

Thorax/Thoracic is a region

Body markings are?

• Mammary: Breast

• Pectoral: Chest

• Scapular: Shoulder blade

• Sternal: Breastbone

• Vertebral: Spinal column

Upper Limb is a region.

Body markings are?

• Acromial: Shoulder

• Axilla/Axillary

• Brachium/Brachial: Arm

• Antebrachium/antebrachial: Forearm

• Carpal: Wrist

• Manual/Manus: Hand

• Palmar/Volar: Palm

• Digital/Phalangeal: Fingers

Abdomen is region. Body markings are?

Coxal: hip

Lumbar: lower back

Umbilical: naval

Pelvis/Pelvic is a region.

Body Markings are?

• Gluteal: Buttocks

• Inguinal: Groin

• Perineal: between anus and external genitals

• Pubis: Pubic

• Sacral: Between Hips

Lower Limb is a region.

Body markings are?

• Calcaneal: Heel

• Crural: Shin

• Digital/Phalangeal: Toes

• Femoral: Thigh

• Patellar: Kneecap

• Pedal: Foot

• Planter: Sole

• Popliteal: Hollow behind knee

• Sural: Calf

• Tarsal: Ankle

Anatomical regions and markings picture

Body cavities

Dorsal cavities?

• Cranial cavity: contains brain

• Spinal/vertebral cavity contains spinal cord

Ventral cavity?

• Thoracic cavity

• Abdominopelvic cavity

• The Diaphragm separates thoracic cavity from abdominopelvic cavity

Thoracic cavity?

Contents: Lungs, heart

• Pleural cavity: narrow potential space between two layers of pleura (pleura is a serous membrane covering the lungs)

• Pericardial cavity: narrow potential space between two layers of pericardium (pericardium is a serous membrane covering the heart)

• Mediastinum is a cavity/space between two lungs occupied by heart

Abdominopelvic cavity?

Separated from the thoracic cavity by the Diaphragm

Abdominal cavity

• Organs: Stomach, Liver, Gall Bladder, Intestines, spleen, kidneys, pancreas

Pelvic cavity:

• Organs: Uterus, Urinary bladder, fallopian tube, part of large intestine (part of colon)

Abdominopelvic organs are covered by a serous membrane called peritoneum

Serous membranes of the body

Three serous membranes

• Pleura: covers lungs

• Pericardium: overs heart

• Peritoneum: covers abdominopelvic organs

Abdominopelvic quadrants?

Abdominopelvic cavity divided into 4 quadrant by one vertical and one horizontal line. Both lines cross each other in the umbilicus (Belly button) to locate the organs

Quadrants?

• Right Upper Quadrant (RUQ)

• Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)

• Left Upper Quadrant (LUQ)

• Left Lower Quadrant (LLQ)

Organ location of quadrants?

• RUQ: Liver, Gall bladder

• RLQ: Appendix, Right ovary

• LUQ: Stomach, Spleen

• LLQ: Colon, Right Ovary

Abdominopelvic regions?

Two vertical lines and two horizontal lines divide the abdominopelvic cavity into nine regions (To locate the organs more specifically).

• Epigastric

• Umbilical

• Hypogastric

• Right and Left Hypochondriac

• Right and Left Umbilical

• Right and Left Iliac (or Inguinal)

Important organs of 9 abdominopelvic regions?

1. Epigastric: Stomach and Left lobe of Liver

2. Umbilical: Small Intestine

3. Hypogastric: Urinary Bladder, Uterus

4. Right Hypochondriac: Right lobe of liver, Gall

Bladder

5. Left Hypochondriac: Spleen

6. Left Lumbar: Left Kidney, part of Large intestine

7. Right Lumbar: Right Kidney, part of large

intestine

8. Right Iliac/Inguinal: Appendix, Right Ovary

9. Left Iliac/Inguinal: Part of colon, Left Ovary

Major systems of the body?

• There are 11 systems in our body.

• Every system has specific organs which perform specific function.

• You need to identify the organs on anatomical models.

Integumentary system?

• Skin

• Hair

• Nail

• Sweat Gland

• Sebaceous gland

• Mammary gland

Function: Protection

Skeletal system?

• Sternum

• Ribs

• Pelvis

• Skull

• Clavicle (R/L)

Function:

• Movement, Protection of internal organs

• Stores and release calcium

Muscular system?

• Pectoralis Major (R/L)

• Deltoid (R/L)

• Gastrocnemius (R/L)

Function:

• Movement aided by bone

• Thermogenesis

Nervous system?

• Brain

• Spinal Cord

• Eye

Function:

• Control Homeostasis

• Control movement

• Thought, Emotion, Behavior

Endocrine system?

• Pituitary gland

• Thyroid gland

• Adrenal gland (R/L)

Function:

• Control metabolism, reproduction, and growth

• Control Homeostasis

Cardiovascular system (CVS)?

• Heart

• Aorta (Artery)

• Superior Vena Cava (vein)

Function:

• Transport materials from one part of the body to another

Lymphatic system?

• Lymph nodes

• Lymphatic vessels

• Spleen

Function:

• Returns proteins and lipids to blood

• Immunity

Respiratory system?

• Trachea

• Lungs (R/L)

• Pharynx

Function:

• Gaseous exchange (O2 Co2)

• Maintain acid base balance (with Urina)

Urinary system?

• Kidneys (R/L)

• Ureters (R/L)

• Urinary Bladder

• Urethra

Function:

• Eliminates waste products

• Maintain acid base balance

• Maintain water and electrolyte balance

Digestive system?

(a) Alimentary Canal

• Oral Cavity

• Pharynx

• Esophagus

• Stomach

• Small intestine

• Large intestine

(b) Accessory organs

• Tongue, Teeth

• Salivary glands

• Pancreas

• Liver, and Gall bladder

Function:

• Physical and chemical breakdown of foods

• Digestion, Absorption, & Metabolism of food materials

• Eliminates solid wastes

Reproductive system?

Male:

• Penis

• Vas deferens is a

• Testes (R/L): Primary organ of male

• Epididymis

Female:

• Mammary glands (R/L)

• Vagina

• Uterus

• Fallopian Tube

• Ovaries (R/L): Primary organ of female

Exercise 2

Epithelial tissue

Physiology?

Six characteristics of an organism or essential life process.

Metabolism?

chemical process which can build up chemicals (anabolism) and breakdown chemical (catabolism). End result of metabolism is to yield energy.

Responsiveness?

Ability to detect any internal or external stimuli (changes in the environment) and respond to the stimuli.

Differentiation?

The process by which unspecialized cell become specialized. Stem cells undergo differentiation to produce all the specialized cells of the body (stem cells in the bone marrow differentiated into blood cells RBC, WBC, and .Platelets)

Reproduction?

Formation of new cells for growth, and repair, also, production of a new individual.

Movement?

movement of the body as well movement of tiny structures of the body.

Growth?

Increase size of the body or an organ. It may be due to hyperplasia (increased number of cells) or hypertrophy (increase size of the cells) or by both.

Germ layers?

• Within 12 days of fertilization, an embryo will develop three layers of tissues

• All tissues of the body developed from these three germ layers

The layers are:

• Ectoderm: Epithelial Tissue and Nervous tissue

• Mesoderm: Epithelial tissue, connective tissue, and muscular tissue

• Endoderm: Epithelial tissue

• Note that, epithelial tissues are developed from all three germ layers (some from ectoderm, some from mesoderm, and some from endoderm)

Types of epithelial tissue?

• Covering and lining epithelium (covers the body and lining the internal hollow organs)

• Glandular epithelium (forms all glands of the body, both exocrine and endocrine)

Characteristics of epithelial tissues?

• The cells are tightly packed together having no or scanty extracellular matrix

• Apical or free surface faces the lumen of an organ, body cavity, or exteriorly and basal or attached surface attached the basement membrane

• Avascular: getting their nutrition from underlying connective tissue

• Innervated (having nerve supply) and proliferative (ability to divide)

4 basic tissues?

✓ Epithelial tissue

✓ Connective tissue

✓ Muscular tissue

✓ Nervous tissue

Basement membrane?

• It is a non-cellular structure

• Having two layers

• Basal lamina: formed by secretion of epithelial tissue

• Reticular lamina: formed by the secretion of connective tissue

• Over the basement membrane is epithelial tissue and under the basement membrane is connective tissue

• Basal surface of epithelial tissue attached to basement membrane

Classification of epithelial tissue

According to number of layers of cells?

• Simple: epithelium having single layer of cells

• Stratified: having multiple layers of cells

• Pseudostratified: single layer but appears stratified due to nuclei located in different length

According to shape of the cells?

• Squamous: flat cells of epithelium

• Cuboidal: cube or square shaped cells

• Columnar: tall/column shaped cells

Simple epithelium: having single layer of cells?

• Simple squamous: flat

• Simple cuboidal: cube shaped

• Simple columnar: tall column shaped

Pseudostratified epithelium: single columnar cells but appearance is stratified.

Stratified epithelium: having multiple layers of cells?

• Stratified squamous

• Stratified cuboidal

• Stratified columnar

• Transitional epithelium

The test may ask you questions about each epithelial tissue?

• Identify the tissue in the field of view (under the microscope)

• One specific location

• One specific function

• One characteristic

• From which germ layers this tissue derived?

• Identify the cell (some cases)

Simple squamous epithelium

Single layer of flat cells

Location:

• Inner surface of the heart

• Alveoli of lungs

• Inner layer of the blood vessels including capillaries

(including kidney capillaries)

• 3 serous membrane: Pleura, pericardium, & peritoneum

Function:

• Filtration (kidney capillaries)

• Diffusion (lungs)

• Secretion (Serous membrane)

Endothelium?

• Simple squamous epithelium lining the cardiovascular system also known as endothelium

Mesothelium?

• Simple squamous epithelium lining the serous membranes (pleura, pericardium, and peritoneum) also known as mesothelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Single layer of cube shaped cells

Location:

• Kidney tubules

• Ducts of glands

• Surface of the ovary

Findings: ‘O’ shaped or ‘cartwheel’

appearance

Function:

• Secretion

• Reabsorption

Columnar epithelium?

Common to all columnar epithelia

• Goblet cells on their apical surfaces

• Goblet cells secret mucous

• Cilia: hair like (long) projection from their apical surfaces

or

• Microvilli: finger like projection (short) from their apical surfaces

Role of Mucous:

• Lubricates lining of digestive, respiratory, urinary, and genital tracts

• Prevents destruction of ‘stomach lining’ by acidic gastric juice

Simple columnar epithelium

• Also known as simple non-ciliated columnar epithelium

Location:

• Lines digestive canal (Stomach to anus)

• Gall bladder

• Ducts of many glands

Findings:

• Single layer of tall epithelium

• Goblet cells

• Microvilli

Function:

• Secretion and absorption

✓ Role of microvilli: increase surface area of the intestine for absorption of food materials

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium

Location:

• Upper respiratory tract

• Nasal cavity

• Trachea

• Nasopharynx

Findings:

• Cilia

• Goblet cells

• Appears to have several layers because the nuclei are in various levels

Function:

Secretes mucus that traps foreign particles, and cilia sweep away mucus for elimination from the body

Stratified squamous epithelium?

• Multiple layers of flat cells

• If top layer is flat, the whole epithelium is squamous type

• Two types:

• Keratinized

• Non-keratinized

• Benefit of multiple layers is to protect the organ or body

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

• Location: Skin, Cornea

• Cells of apical layers are dead

• Dead due to keratin, a tough protein

• Function: Protection

Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

• Multiple layers of flat epithelial cells

• Location:

• Esophagus

• Inner surface of the check

(mouth cavity)

• Vagina

• Function: Protects the organs against

friction (abrasion) forces

• You can say ‘stratified squamous

epithelium

Keratinized vs non-keratinized

Transitional epithelium

• Can change their shape in different condition

• From stratified cuboidal or columnar to stratified squamous

• Tissue can be stretched

Location:

• Urinary bladder

• Ureter

• Part of urethra

Function: filled or unfilled urinary bladder

Epithelial membrane?

3 epithelial membranes in our body

Mucous membrane?

In GI tract: simple columnar epithelium

Upper respiratory tract: pseudostratified squamous epithelium

Mouth, esophagus, vagina: stratified squamous epithelium

Cutaneous membrane?

Lined by keratinized stratified squamous epithelium

Skin

Serous membrane?

Lined by simple squamous epithelium

Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

Connective tissue membrane?

Synovial membrane (only C.T membrane)

Present in synovial joints

Layers of mucous membrane?

• Mucosa

• Simple columnar epithelium

• Lamina propria

• Muscularis mucosa

• Submucosa

• Muscularis: outer longitudinal and inner circular

• Serosa

Exercise 3

Connective tissue

Connective tissue overview?

• Most abundant and most heterogenous tissues in the body

• They connect, support, protect to the tissues and insulate the internal organs

• CT developed from mesoderm

• Well vascularized

• Innervative and proliferative

• They don’t have any apical or basal surfaces

• Located under the basement membrane

Components?

Components:

• Cells:

• Fixed

• Transient

• Extracellular matrix:

• CT fibers

• Ground substance

CT cells?

Fixed cells:

• Blasts: undergoes cell division and secret matrix

Example: Fibroblast, chondroblast, osteoblast

• Cytes: maintain the matrix and no cell division occurs

Example: chondrocyte, osteocyte

• Clasts: remodel the tissue

Example: osteoclast

Transient cells?

Found in multiple types of CT when the perform specific functions

Examples:

• Macrophages: phagocytic cells

• Plasma cells: derived from B lymphocytes and secret antibodies that attack or neutralize invaders

• Mast cells: secret histamine and responsible for inflammatory response

• Adipocyte: adipose tissue cell. Stores triglycerides

• Leukocytes: White Blood Cells. Neutrophil, Eosinophil, Basophil, lymphocytes, Monocytes are its varieties