WW1: 1905-14

The alliance system and international rivalry

Why was there tension in Europe in 1905? MAIN

Germany: new country, defeated france and took Alsace Lorraine which was important industrial area, were scared France would attack to get it back, so rivals with france.

Austria-Hungary: large empire, contained many nationalities including very nationalistic serbia who wanted independance and to join serbia, main concern keep empire together, Russia supported serbs so rivals with russia.

Italy: new country, not strong industrially/ militarily, wanted to ally for power/safety, allied with Germany and A-H so rivals are france + russia.

France: didn’t want to be attacked again (fear), wanted alsace lorraine back, allied with Russia to go against Germany.

Russia: larges of 6 powers, main concerns were Germany expanding into it and that A-H would take measures against slavs in A-H (russia+ serbia are both slavs) so rivals are Germany + A-H.

Great Britain: were in ‘splending isolation’ (not getting involved), powerful navy and powerful empire, didn’t feel need to form alliances, Germany wanted to have better navy so Britain felt direct threat so joined france.

What were the two alliances?

Triple Entente: Britian, France, Russia

Triple Alliance: Germany, Italy, A-H

Overview of empires

Britain: ¼ of world’s land surface was its empire, close contact with colonies for trade, trade mainly by merchant ships routes controlled by navy, most powerful country in world.

France: second largest empire, had trouble controlling eastern colonies (rebels who wanted independance), cost of fighting rebels drained the economy, france would have damaged rep if lost the eastern colonies as well as alasace lorraine so won’t give them up.

Germany: had pressure because new, wanted to aquire colonies, needed strong navy to aquire them, Britian saw G as naval threat and G saw Britain to be standing in way of getting new colonies.

Russia + A-H land based empires: didn’t have overseas empires and didn’t want them.

Russia: wanted to expand into SE to have ice free ports, also expand into balkans to get to atlantic ocean.

A-H: had internal struggles due to it containing 11 different nationalities, lots of riots, A-H scared

Economic rivalry Britian vs Germany

Britain first to industrialise, became richest country in Europe, Germany then began to industrialise, 1890 G and B competing in markets, 1914 G was producing more than B, G became strongest economically.

Economic rivalry France vs Germany

F lost Alsace Lorraine so had to import coal weakening its economy, F thought to mine in morrocco, the minerals if mined would put F in competition with G, G afraid that F would turn morocco into F colony

Russia vs Germany and A-H

G + A-H good market in balkans, R began to build railways there, G+A-H saw this as a threat because R goods would get there easier.

Naval race

British relied on navy to keep empire secure and protect its economy, G saw B navy and wanted to challenge it, 1905 Germany bagan to build more battleships and cruisers, Admiral Tirpitz (naval chief) set up navy league- wanted G people interested in navy, B response was to build best ship HMS dreadnought launched 1906 VERY ADVANCED, G responded by building Rheinland, Amiral fisher (B navy cheif) ordered upgraded HMSD, many people recruited.

Facts HMS Dreadnought

• faster

• more heavily armoured 28cm thick on sides and 35cm thick on decks

• can carry 800 sailors

• can shoot ships 32km away

Arms race on land

• Russia’s defeat in the war with Japan led to formation of State of Defence Council, Russian army big, badly equipped

• A-H secretly made canons

• 1906 B expeditonary force 144,000 soldiers to F to support in case of war, set up training schools

Plan 17

F wanted Alsace Lorraine back, plan from General Joffre, if war F put all out attack on Alsace Lorraine to get it back, F then advance on Berlin.

First Moroccan 1905-1906

F was trading with M for minerals, F and Italy secret agreement that M goes under F control, April 1904 F and B agree F have mandate over M and in return F leave Egypt alone to B, G was not consulted.

G response to First Moroccan +reactions

Kaiser Wilhelm II said interested in having equal economic rights to M, G politions worried about F influence overseas, G told Sultan Aziz of support and told him to resist F, G politions looking for “Place in the sun”, March 1905 Wilhelm goes to M rode to G embassy, assured M of G support for M independance, F and B shocked at Wilhelm, F angry, B made clear would not tolerate G interfering with M, B afraid G would set up naval base in M and challenge B naval dominance.

The Algeciras 1906

to settle M situation

Janurary to April, 12 Eurpean countries attended + USA, G was only supported by A-H.

Final agreement= F controlling interest in M affairs, everyone free to trade with M.

G felt embarassed

Second moroccan crisis 1911-1912 + G reaction

March rebels rose up against Sultan and surrounded fez, Sultan asked F for help, F sent soldiers as did Spain, both F and S claimed to do this to protect F and S people.

G politions thought F encouraged the revolt to send troops to M so could occupy, this went against the agreement of the Algerciras conference, G boat SMS Panther sent to M port, G said did so to protect the G people, F response to G boat incident was to send more troops, B told F not to because didn’t want to increase tensions, F didn’t listen, B had no choice but to support F, B worried that G would plan to build a naval base nearby= direct threat to B naval base ALSO near.

Second Moroccan crisis- outcome

Tensions were VERY high but G hit with financial crisis so ended their involvement, G had to sign Treaty of Fez in November- agreed F would control M and G got land in congo.

Long term effects= B support of F strengthened entente cordiale, division between entente powers and G inceased.

B and F made naval agreement (#friendship) B would protect F northen coast from G attack and F would protect B in the mediterranean.

European powers aims/ambitions for balkans

A-H: serbia shares a border with A-H, A-H didn’t want S to grow power/influence because then serbs in empire may revolt, A-H aimed to control S along with other slav area, wanted to gain land with a coastline.

Russia: keen to extend power/influence in balkans and wanted control over Dardanelles as would give boats access to mediterranean.

Germany: G wanted to build its industrial/ economic strength, oil in Iraq (oil= money) Wilhelm wanted to build railways to transport the oil to G but would have to pass through Balkans.

Bosnian crisis 1908-1909

‘young turks’ forced Turkey to restore Turkey’s democratic constitution, chaos meant A-H could annex the provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina and make them part of the A-H empire immediatley.

King of S said the provinces should belong to S as most people living there were serbs, R supported S, G supported A-H, R+S didnt want to have war with G so ended involvement, resulted in R increasing size of army (#never having this again)

Bulgaria also took advantage and got independence from T.

First Balkan war October 1912-May 1913

took 6 months, T couldn’t compete against Balkans so surrendered, peace conference in London T agreed to give up land to Europe

Second Balkan war June 1913-August 1913

Bulgaria not happy with how T land was divided, Bulgaria ordered troops to attack S and Greece, S and Romanian and Greek armies invaded B, B asked for armistice and give up some of land it gained.

Result of Balkan wars

• Serbia doubled in size + got aggressive

• Serbs in Bosnia- Herzegovina wanted to join S

• A-H wanted to control Serbia

• Bulgaria wanted revenge on Serbia

Balkan nationalism

encouraged by independence of Bulgaria, slav identity brought together Bulgaria+Greece+Montenegro+Serbia (Balkan league), nationalism made King Ferdinand of Bulgaria demand more of Bulgaria started 2nd balkan war, serbia grew in all areas, Serbia direct threat to A-H empire

The Black hand

aim: unite all the serbs outside serbia- planned to utilise terrorism to do this

contained mainly officers and some government officials

black hand gang members were the ones gaurding borders so could let terrorists through

The key issues in the balkans

1. The Decline of the Ottoman Empire

• The weakening of the Ottoman Empire left a power vacuum in the Balkans.

• Austria-Hungary and Russia both wanted to expand their influence in the region.

2. Rise of Nationalism

• Slavic nationalism, especially Serbian nationalism, was on the rise.

• Groups like the Black Hand aimed to unite Slavic peoples and oppose Austro-Hungarian control.

3. Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

• Series of conflicts that increased tensions between Balkan states and the major powers.

• Showed the instability of the region and the breakdown of diplomacy.

4. Austria-Hungary vs. Serbia

• Serbia was seen as a threat by Austria-Hungary due to its expansionist and nationalist aims.

• Austria-Hungary wanted to crush Serbian ambitions to prevent the disintegration of its own multi-ethnic empire.

5. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914)

• Carried out in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip (a Bosnian Serb nationalist).

• This was the immediate trigger of WWI, leading Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia.

6. The Alliance System and Escalation

• The conflict in the Balkans triggered alliances:

  • Austria-Hungary backed by Germany.

  • Serbia backed by Russia (and eventually by Britain and France).

• The local conflict escalated into a world war.

Significane of key issues in Balkans for international relations

💥 1. Rise of Nationalism in the Balkans

Significance:

• Challenged multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

• Created tension between self-determination (national groups wanting independence) vs. imperial control.

• Increased instability = threat to European balance of power.

🔥 2. Bosnian Crisis (1908)

Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia & Herzegovina.

IR Impact:

• 🚨 Shattered trust: Russia and Serbia felt betrayed.

• 😤 Serbia became extra salty and more determined to resist Austria-Hungary.

• 🧠 Key lesson: diplomacy was failing → alliances hardened instead of preventing war.

⚔ 3. Balkan Wars (1912–1913)

• First war: Balkan states vs. Ottomans — Ottomans lost big.

• Second war: Bulgaria vs. former allies — also lost.

IR Impact:

• Serbia gained land = stronger = more confident = bigger threat to Austria-Hungary.

• Austria felt surrounded by hostile Slavs.

• Russia supported Serbia → growing East-West tension (Russia vs. Austria, backed by Germany).

• Proved small regional wars could have big international consequences.

💣 4. Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand (1914)

By a Bosnian Serb nationalist in Sarajevo.

IR Impact:

• Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia and declared war.

• Russia backed Serbia.

• Germany backed Austria-Hungary.

• France and Britain were drawn in.

➡ Sparked WWI, showing how localized conflict could escalate into global war due to entangled alliances and unresolved tension.

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🧠 In IR terms:

• Realism: States acted to protect their interests → alliances, military buildup.

• Security Dilemma: One state’s gain (Serbia getting stronger) = another’s insecurity (Austria freaks out).

• Power vacuum: Collapse of Ottoman influence left a gap everyone wanted to fill.

• Alliance systems failed to contain conflict — they amplified it.

Sarajevo assassination what happened

Franz Ferdinand (heir to A-H empire) is going to visit bosnia during peak tension visit army then go to Sarajevo, 28 June (day of Serbian people), plan wasn’t complete success many men failed then Gravilo Princip shot twice hit hm in throat and wife in stomach (died of their injuries in hospital)

Consequences of Sarajevo assassination

1. Austria-Hungary’s Ultimatum to Serbia

• Harsh demands (intentionally so).

• Serbia agreed to most, but not all.

• Austria declared war on Serbia (July 28, 1914).

🎯 Significance: First domino falls — war begins.

2. Alliance System Kicks In

• Russia mobilizes to protect Serbia.

• Germany declares war on Russia (Aug 1) & France (Aug 3).

• Germany invades Belgium → Britain declares war on Germany (Aug 4).

🌍 Result: A regional conflict turns into World War I in just over a month.

3. Global War Begins (WWI)

• Countries pulled in because of:

  • Treaty obligations

  • Mutual defense alliances

  • Fear of losing power

• 65+ million soldiers involved. Death, destruction, and the end of an era.

4. Collapse of Empires

• The assassination set off a chain reaction that led to:

  • The fall of Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, German Empire.

  • Redrawing of borders after the war.

  • Rise of new states in Eastern Europe.

5. Legacy of Violence & Nationalism

• Nationalist tensions didn’t die — just went underground.

• Contributed to WWII, Yugoslav Wars, and ongoing Balkan tensions even in the 20th century.

Features + impacts of Bosnian crisis 1908-09

🔍 FEATURES (What happened?)

1. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia & Herzegovina

   • These provinces were officially still part of the Ottoman Empire, but Austria had been occupying them since 1878.

   • In 1908, Austria said: “You know what? These are ours now.”

2. Serbia was FURIOUS

   • Bosnia had a big Slavic population, and Serbia wanted to unite all South Slavs (Pan-Slavism).

   • Serbia saw this as Austria blocking their dreams of a “Greater Serbia.”

3. Russia supported Serbia… but wasn’t ready for war

   • Russia protested the annexation but backed down after Germany fully supported Austria-Hungary.

   • Russia was still weak after the 1905 defeat by Japan, so it didn’t want another war yet.

4. Ottoman Empire was too weak to resist

   • They were losing grip on the Balkans and couldn’t stop the annexation.

   • They just accepted some cash from Austria and moved on.

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⚠ IMPACTS (Why it mattered)

1. Huge increase in Austria–Serbia tensions

• Serbia humiliated and angry.

• Vowed revenge and became more aggressive — this tension led directly to WWI.

2. Russia was embarrassed

• Looked weak for backing down.

• Determined never to back down again — played a big role in 1914 when it immediately mobilized after Austria declared war on Serbia.

3. Germany-Austria alliance strengthened

• Germany’s firm support during the crisis made Austria more confident.

• Austria felt it had Germany’s "blank cheque" — crucial in 1914.

4. Breakdown of international diplomacy

• Crisis showed that peaceful negotiation was breaking down in Europe.

• Balance of power = shaky, with alliances now locking countries into conflict paths.

5. Ottoman Empire weakened even more

• Their loss of influence in the Balkans was clear.

• Inspired other Balkan nations to go after Ottoman land → leads to Balkan Wars.

📝 Quick Summary Box:

Features:

• Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia (1908)

• Serbia and Russia protested

• Germany backed Austria, Russia backed down

• Ottoman Empire accepted annexation

Impacts:

• Serbia humiliated, tension rises

• Russia vows not to back down again

• Strengthened Austria-Germany alliance

• Diplomacy weakened across Europe

• Ottoman influence in the Balkans collapses

Features + impacts of Balkan wars 1912-13

🔍 FEATURES (What happened?) ⚔ First Balkan War (Oct 1912 – May 1913)

1. Balkan League vs. Ottoman Empire

   • Members: Serbia, Greece, Bulgaria, Montenegro

   • Goal: Kick the weakened Ottoman Empire out of Europe.

   • Result: Big win for the Balkan states. Ottomans lost almost all their European land.

2. Land Grab

   • The Balkan states took huge chunks of Ottoman territory (esp. Macedonia).

   • But this led to arguments over who got what.

⚔ Second Balkan War (June – Aug 1913)

1. Bulgaria turned on its former allies

   • Bulgaria felt cheated in the division of Macedonia.

   • Fought Serbia, Greece, Romania, and the Ottomans.

2. Bulgaria got wrecked

   • Lost territory to Serbia, Greece, and Romania.

   • Huge blow to its power and pride.

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⚠ IMPACTS (Why it mattered)

1. Serbia became way stronger

• Gained land and prestige.

• Felt confident (and cocky) enough to challenge Austria-Hungary.

• Austria saw Serbia as a growing threat.

2. Austria-Hungary panicked

• Serbia's success made Austria fear losing control over its own Slavic populations.

• Determined to crush Serbia eventually — set the stage for 1914.

3. Russia backed Serbia more strongly

• Saw Serbia as its key ally in the Balkans.

• Russia was ready to go to war to protect Serbia next time → which it did in 1914.

4. Bulgaria humiliated

• Lost land and prestige.

• Later sides with Germany and Austria-Hungary in WWI out of revenge.

5. Ottoman Empire pushed out of Europe

• Lost almost all territory in Europe except for a bit around Istanbul.

• Officially marked the decline of Ottoman power in the region.

6. Tensions between great powers escalated

• Austria and Russia became even more aggressive.

• The Balkans earned their title: “The Powder Keg of Europe” 🧨

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📝 Quick Summary Box:

Features:

• First War: Balkan League defeats Ottomans, takes land.

• Second War: Bulgaria attacks former allies, loses badly.

• Conflict over territory, especially Macedonia.

Impacts:

• Serbia gains power, Austria feels threatened.

• Russia doubles down on supporting Serbia.

• Bulgaria humiliated, joins Central Powers in WWI.

• Ottoman Empire’s decline in Europe confirmed.

• Great Power tensions rise = direct road to WWI.

Events leading to the start of WW1

29 July 1914: Russia supported Serbs, A-H and G dominated Balkans R didn’t want access to the mediterranean being controlled by them so ordered R armies to Mobilise.

30 July-1 August: G kaiser Wilhelm sent ultimatum to Tsar Nicholas, Tsar refused so G declared war on R, F and R allies so F mobilised army.

2 August: G began to put Schlieffen plan into operation, Army trains started leaving 1 every 3 mins towards Belgian border.

3 August: B didn’t have to join the war but politicians afraid of G dominated Europe if F lost as would threaten trade, due to Treaty of London Belgium had complete protection (signed by B, F, R, Austria and Prussia) (Prussia= important part of Germany) if G invade they break the treaty, B honoured the treaty sent telegram to G saying retreat the army had until 4th august midnight to reply.

4 August: G moved quick into Belgium, Belgium managed to slow them down by blowing up railway lines, B didn’t get reply from G so now involved in the war.

5 August: Triple Entente and Triple Alliance officially at war, Involvement of B turned it from a European war into a world war due to its worldwide empire.

Role of the great powers in the start of the war

Already had high tensions needed one event to trigger the war (Assassination Sarajevo) which although a good reason for the cause but was mainly the political, economic, colonial and military rivalries that caused it.

B thought G was threatening its economic and colonial sumpremacy and its navy. F thought threatened by G and wanted Alsace lorraine back. G wanted their “place in the sun” and were building the navy to get it. G knew F was pissed so allied with A-H for more strength. A-H rivals with R and wanted to keep growing to keep slavs under control with their independance movement but R wanted to keep the slavs so the only solution after the assassination and A-H threatening the only option seemed to be war.

Schlieffen plan

created December 1905 by Count Alfred Von Schlieffen, land wise F and R were main enermies of G, possibility G had to fight war on two fronts, Schlieffen thought Russia would take 6 weeks to mobilise, G would attack F get to Paris take it over then attack R.

Reasons for the Schlieffen plan failure

1. The battle of Mons (23-24 August 1914) The british expeditionary force slowed the G advance for 2 days before B troops were forced to retreat.

2. collapse of Plan 17. F armies failed to recapture Alsace Lorraine but slowed G advance into F by 2 weeks

3. R mobilisation was meant to take 6 weeks but took 10 days so on 19th August invaded G so G had to defend on two fronts.

4. The battle of Marne (5-11 September 1914) G army wasn’t strong enough to take Paris so went to river Marne. Clashed with F +British expeditionary force retreating from Alsace Lorraine and were beaten back to the river Aisne.

The trench system

• G trenches deeper than B and F

• front line trenches- were fighting was done

• behind front trenches were communication, reserve and support trenches ( where kitches/ lavatories/ field hospitals were)

• protected by sand bags (for bullets), barbed wire (for soldiers)

• in no mans land there were posts used for spying on enemies

• dug outs were for sleep

• dug in Z pattern (so enemies can’t fire straight down the line if captured)

Deadlock on western front

• failure of schlieffen plan led to G making trenches to make it difficult for allies to attack

• strength of the defences: hard to attack due to machine guns (soldiers likely to be killed before even getting to the trench)

• ineffective weapons: not as affective as machine guns only good things were tanks and planes but not yet developed enough

• mud: incredibly hard to cross land as wet and muddy so slippy and boggy

• lack of new tactics: trained in old type of warfare havent had the experience in trench warfare

life in the trenches

• 4 days front, 4 days support, 8 days reserve, 14 off (unless battle taking place then everyone in front line to fight)

• often didnt see family for a year

• allowed to send letters home but they were usually censored (remove info that was not acceptable to authorities)

• had parcels sent to them by families and organisations such as the red cross (contained luxuries e.g. soap, chocolate)

• bored, fear/ shell shock, death/ injury, mud, dirt and disease, bad food, lice/ rats ect.

Dirt and disease:

Mud (men & horses drowned in it) created trench foot.

Hygeine: clothes couldn’t be washed for min a week, got lice, rats, flies

Nutrition: couldn’t get much food, food was cold and not good quality

Casualties:

• when going over the top saw, smelt, threat of death

• those parties sent to look for those too badly wounded to get back to trenches

• seriously wounded sent to casualty clearing stations (CCS)

• injured too badly were operated on at the CCS

• others were taken by train to hospitals or nursing homes

• many died from their wounds due to infection (didnt have antibiotics until 1930)

• many got shell shock

• some deserted - if caught were shot

New weapons and methods

Aircraft:

• made of wood, cloth and piano wire with a open cockpit and unreliable engine with no parachutes

• were used as ‘eyes’ on their enemies

• useful as advised them on wether the enemy was attacking, regrouping or retreating.

Dog fights:

• airmen armed with bombs they could drop and had machine guns

• developed so airmen could fire through the planes propeller blades

• expected to live for 3 weeks

Machine guns:

• one of most effective weapons

• 2000m firing range

• only added to stalemate as both sides had them

Artillery:

• these are mobile field guns

• 6 shells a minute

• barrages were not reliable

• not a lot of use

Gas:

• more for fear than casualties

• both sides used it although B first opposed arguing not civillised war

• chlorine gas, mustard gas, phosgene gas

• suffocated and blinded soldiers

• problem if wind changed

Tanks:

• most significant attempt at breaking the stalemate

• could cross difficult ground

• once captured could be used by other side

• G tanks didn’t come into service until March 1918

Key features of Somme July- November 1916

context: F and B agreed on attack along River Somme but G also planned a attack which happened Verdun February 1916. July G didn’t succeed in capturing Verdun, F as a result had 500,000+ casualties G had 400,000+ casualties. F no longer major part in Somme offensive planned with B. Somme important to take G away from Verdun.

• Major Allied offensive by Britain and France against Germany on the Western Front

• Began on 1 July 1916, the bloodiest day in British military history (=60,000 casualties)

• Aimed to break trench stalemate and relieve French forces at Verdun

• Week-long artillery bombardment failed to destroy German defenses

• First use of tanks in warfare (by Britain), though they were slow and unreliable

• Fought in trench warfare conditions with machine guns, barbed wire, and shellfire

• Over 1 million casualties with minimal land gains (only about 6–8 miles)

• Example of a war of attrition — wearing down the enemy over time

• British commander General Haig was criticized for continuing the attack despite heavy losses

Key features of Passchendaele July-November 1917

Context: General Haig believed he could break through G lines in flanders. He wanted to capture the naval bases to make it harder for G to do submarine attacks on B shipping.

• Also known as the Third Battle of Ypres, fought by British-led forces (with Canadian and ANZAC troops) against Germany

• Began in July 1917 and lasted until November 1917

• Aimed to break through German lines and reach the Belgian coast to destroy U-boat bases

• Conditions were horrific — constant rain turned the battlefield into a muddy swamp

• Thick mud clogged rifles, drowned soldiers and horses, and made movement almost impossible

• Featured intense artillery bombardments and use of poison gas

• Very high casualties: around 500,000 total, including many from Commonwealth forces

• British and Allied forces eventually captured the village of Passchendaele, but gains were small

• Criticized for its limited strategic value and huge loss of life

• Became a powerful symbol of the horror and futility of trench warfare in WWI

Successes and Failures on the western front

✅ Successes on the Western Front

• Development of new tactics like the creeping barrage and infiltration tactics improved effectiveness over time

• First use of tanks (Somme 1916) and later improved tank warfare (Cambrai 1917) showed technological progress

• Air reconnaissance and coordination with artillery became more effective

• Battle of Amiens (1918) marked the start of the Hundred Days Offensive and showed successful Allied coordination

• Trench systems gave soldiers some protection and allowed sustained defense over long periods

• Improved logistics and supply lines helped maintain troops on the front

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❌ Failures on the Western Front

• Stalemate for most of the war — neither side made significant gains for years

• High casualties for minimal land (e.g. Somme, Passchendaele)

• Outdated tactics (e.g. “going over the top”) led to mass loss of life

• Poor leadership at times (e.g. General Haig's decisions at the Somme and Passchendaele)

• Terrible conditions in the trenches — mud, disease, rats, shell shock

• Failure to break through German lines quickly despite large-scale offensives

Haig Pros and Cons

❌ Criticisms of Haig

• Outdated tactics: Kept using mass infantry attacks despite the power of machine guns and artillery

• Nicknamed the "Butcher of the Somme" for accepting high casualties (~400,000 British dead/wounded)

• Accused of being distant from front-line reality — rarely visited trenches himself

• Overestimated the ability of new technology like tanks and artillery

• Passchendaele (1917) saw horrific conditions and heavy losses for minimal gain

• Often seen as valuing victory over lives (war of attrition mindset)

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✅ Defences of Haig

• Working with limited options — no one had faced industrial war like this before

• Under massive pressure to relieve French forces (e.g. at Verdun in 1916)

• Supported new tech like tanks and aircraft early on, helping future strategy

• Helped lead to final Allied victory in the Hundred Days Offensive (1918)

• Morale and logistics under him were maintained despite years of war

• Viewed as a war hero by many at the time — received titles and public praise after the war

German threat to Britain in North sea intro

Navys were similar size, both decided to keep their fleets in port for as long as possible, to lose a major sea battle could result in losing the war.

The battle of Heligoland Bight August 1914

Smaller ship clashes

B noticed G cruisers/ destroyers patrol patterns, B plan was to catch G destroyers as they went back to port, B squadron used to make the attack, was a B success.

Result: 712 G deaths, B 35 deaths. B people very happy but G kaiser horrified every action had to be approved by him in advance, Admiral Tirpitz not happy thought he should have the final decision, no major fleet action for months

German raids

Three main objectives:

• lay mines to sink B ships

• force B ships to chase B back to port where more G boats were so they could ambush them

• force B to split up by sending them to defend different towns giving G a better chance to catch isolated shiips and reduce strength

Raid on Great Yarmouth November 1914:

G squadron (8 cruisers) aim to lay mines outside Great Yarmouth and shell it, aim was poor shells ended up on beach, a fragment killed only one B man, mines were laid, G hit their own mine on way back killing 235, G saw how easy it was to reach B coast, B unalarmed.

Raid on Scarborough, Whitby and Hartlepool December 1914:

G saw how fast raids in B water could be so wanted to draw out small sections of the B fleet to trap and destroy, B code breakers found out G on 15 December was heading over, next day G started shelling Scarborough after laying mines, G then went to Whitby shelled again then went to Hartlepool, killed many and went back to port, part of B fleet tried to follow but failed due to weather + communication.

Massively impacted B public opinion, decided whole fleet should defend the North coast, B used this as propaganda campaign to encourage men to enlist.

The Battle of Dogger Bank January 1915

B decoded signals learnt G was coming to north coast, G squadron surprised so turned back, B chased them, B focused on blucher rather than rest of G squadron due to confused signals, by time blucher sunk the squadron got away.

B lost 15 men but G lost 954 so considered B victory

The Battle of Jutland May-June 1916

G wanted to draw out B intending to launch surprise attack, B broke the codes so knew, G ships better than B ships, night G went back, B had most damage.

Both considered it a victory G because they sunk more ships and B because G never again left port.

Submarine warfare

• G didn’t want to directly challenge B fleet so used it to weaken B

• February 1915 G said all B merchant ships in B water would be destroyed

• problem with this was if G hit a ship in neutral country could bring them into war on allies side- was afraid of bringing in USA

• May 1916 G said U boats would no longer attack neutral shipping

• G u boat fleet increased

• G believed B could be starved into submission but B rationed so it was fine

Anti U boat measures + successes

• minefields set in English Channel

• depth charges

• B pm introduced q ships (armed but disguised as merchant ships)

Successes:

• large numbers sunk by mines

• after improved design of depth charges they destroyed 22 u boats

• first convoy crossed the Atlantic only 1% were sunk by U boats

• q ships responsible for 10% of u boats sunk

u boat losses so great they didnt operate successfully. U boats gone for good.

Sinking of The Lusitania May 1915

• B luxury liner

• warning put next to ad that could be sunk by G

• fastest ship in world so passengers thought they were safe

• got torpedoed then had internal explosion

• majority of passengers drowned over a 100 were american

• sinking led to international anger especially in USA and B

• G responded saying it was carrying war materials so had the right

• B denied but it did contain two consignments named butter and cheese that were unrefrigerated and weighed 90 tonnes

Reasons for Gallipoli Campaign

• Turkey joined war on side of G and A-H

• this was issue for the allies as it meant R could no longer have supplies of food and arms sent via the mediterranean and R ships were now trapped

• on top of this R needed help as in stalemate on western front and being attacked by A-H and G

Churchill’s plan:

plan that meant enemy forces moved away from R and open the Dardanelles to B and F shipping again.

Consisted of a naval bombardment to knock Turkish forts gaurding Gallipoli peninsula that was gaurding the Dardanelles allowing ground troops to clear the way allowing shipping back to R.

Key features of Gallipoli Campaign

• 17 February 1915 B+F navy bombard T guns

• 18 February main attack launched- tried to force way through Dardanelles but blown up by mines 300 died and rest retreated

• decided allied army would land on coast of Gallipoli to capture forts gaurding Dardanelles to have mines cleared

• April 1915 B+ Anzac ( australian and new zealand army) + F invaded Gollipoli peninsula BUT no experience of landing on beaches, beaches were below cliffs so easily shot at, used out of date maps

• T prepared

• Anzac landed hit by machine gun fire, never able to move inland, attempted another landing but were unopposed then met by T and couldn’t advance

• F landed Kum Kale and defeated

• B landed Cape Helles but beaches became bloodbaths gained some land but never captured a fort

• forced to dig trenches couldn’t advance so very unsuccessful- aim was to break stalemate but just ended up similar

Evacuation

• Autumn 1915 obvious it failed

• General Monro ordered immediate evacuation

• 10 december- 9 Janurary 135,000 evacuated

Effects of Gallipoli Campaign

• 480,000 allied troups took part 48,000 killed

• many got typhoid dysentry ect due to conditions

• Dardanelles still closed to R ships and R faced slow starvation

• stalemate on western front not broken

• G able to strengthen position on western front

• T morale high

• General Hamilton removed from his command

• Winston Churchill’s career also damaged and forced to resign

Significance of US entering the war

• Provided a huge morale boost to the Allies — fresh troops, resources, and hope

• Brought in millions of new American soldiers (especially from 1918 onward)

• Helped break the stalemate on the Western Front

• Economic and industrial power of the U.S. supplied food, weapons, and money

• Reinforced the naval war against German U-boats with new ships and convoy protection

• Arrival of U.S. troops helped push back the final German Spring Offensive (1918)

• Supported the Allies in launching the successful Hundred Days Offensive

• Made it clear to Germany that total victory was impossible

• Boosted Allied bargaining power at the peace table (e.g. Wilson’s 14 Points)

• U.S. entry helped tip the balance and bring the war to an end in November 1918

Context for Ludendorff offensive

• April 1917 US declared war on G due to unrestricted warfare and zimmerman telegram

• Zimmerman telegram = coded telegram sent by G to Mexico January because G thought US would join war so wanted Mexico to invade US if that happened stating G would give support . Mexico didn’t agree.

• due to revolutions in R and a counter attack from G on R having R defeated R signed a peace treaty with G- RUSSIA OUT OF WAR

• G needed to take action before US really made a difference

The Ludendorff Offensive March-July 1918 Key features

• Germany’s last major offensive on the Western Front in WWI

• Launched in March 1918 by General Erich Ludendorff

• Goal: Defeat Allies before U.S. troops arrived in large numbers

• Used stormtrooper (infiltration) tactics — fast-moving, small elite units targeted weak points

• Initially very successful — German troops advanced up to 40 miles, the deepest since 1914

• Codenamed Operation Michael, followed by other phases (e.g. Georgette, Gneisenau)

• Overextended German supply lines and troops became exhausted

• High casualties and lack of reinforcements weakened German momentum

• Marked by brutal fighting and destruction, but no decisive breakthrough

• Pushed Allies to regroup and launch the Hundred Days Offensive, which turned the tide

Failures of the Ludendorff offensive

• Ludendorff sent too many men into F territory 400,000 killed- did not have enough reserve troops

• G troops went too far too fast supplies couldn’t keep pace

• advance into F caused salient meaning G could now be attacked from 3 sides

Allied drive to victory

• US had previosuly helped with supplies but now had 2 million troops in Europe by November 1918

• US troops in F enlarged ports, built railway lines and telephone labels

• In battle of Marne helped get G away from Paris

• second battle of Albert captured 8000 G soldiers in 2 days

• Launched attack on salient - G forced to retreat

• advanced by 32km November 1918

• biggest impact US had was psychological

Hundred days offensive August- November 1918

• British army stronger with new tech like aerial photography

• began with an attack on Amiens - barrage- knocked out G guns that could destroy tanks

• then creeping barrage- by end of day broke through G lines

• G morale collapsed- “black day of the G army”

• land recaptured by Allies

• Allies got to Hindenburg line September by October broke through it- G knew war had to end

• G in full retreat

Hundred days armistice 1918

• G asked USA to arrange a end

• G allies had already made peace with Allies

• in G riots as people starved and the flu spread, Navy rebelled and in November kaiser abdicated

• November G agreed to Alies armistice- guns stoped firing

Reasons for Germany’s defeat

Food Famine and Flu:

• Army took most of the horses that the farmers used in farming + conscripted the farmers too, took farm animals to feed the army= less productive agriculture which= less food.

• G had to rely on importing food but didn’t work due to B blockade. 1918 there was famine in G.

• Civilians cold too as couldn’t import coal due to blockade.

• 400,000 deaths due to flu

• Lack of trust in G gov- riots

Political turmoil:

• October 1918 navy rebelled as heard rumour they would be sent to fight B navy- they thought it was suicidal- refused joined movement in November that promised soliders’ and workers’ councils in rebellion against existing gov

• November 1918 movement set up Bavarian and Democratic and Socialist republic

• in Berlin strikes + riots, November Kaiser abdicated + new gov set up

Military defeat:

• Ludendorff stretched G army to its limits- supplies couldn’t reach front line troops

• forced to retreat during 100 days had to abandon everything- morale low and hundreds deserted

• by summer B learned how to combine artillery and infantry in attack- evidenced battle of Amiens in August

• 2 million US soldiers boosted allies- morale + supplies + skills

• G allies surrendered: Bulgaria in october and A-H in november