AP Biology Review Flashcards

Vocabulary flashcards for AP Biology review, covering key terms and definitions from Units 1-8.

Atom

The smallest unit of matter, consisting of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Element

A substance made of only one type of atom.

Atomic Number

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which determines the element.

Mass Number

The sum of the protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus.

Covalent Bonds

Formed when two atoms share one or more pairs of electrons.

Nonpolar covalent bonds

Occur when electrons are shared equally.

Polar covalent bonds

Occur when electrons are shared unequally.

Ionic Bonds

Occur when electrons are transferred between atoms, resulting in the formation of oppositely charged ions.

Hydrogen Bonds

Weak bonds formed when hydrogen atoms, covalently bonded to electronegative atoms like oxygen or nitrogen, are attracted to another electronegative atom.

Van der Waals Interactions

Weak, transient interactions between molecules due to induced dipoles.

Cohesion

Water molecules stick to each other, which results in surface tension.

Adhesion

Water molecules stick to other substances.

High Specific Heat

Water absorbs a lot of heat before its temperature increases, helping regulate temperature.

High Heat of Vaporization

Water requires a lot of energy to evaporate, providing a cooling mechanism.

Universal Solvent

Water dissolves many substances, making it crucial for metabolic processes.

Carbohydrates

Serve as a primary energy source (e.g., glucose). They are made up of sugar monomers like monosaccharides.

Proteins

Made of amino acid monomers. Proteins serve as enzymes, structural components, and transporters. They have four levels of structure.

Lipids

Hydrophobic molecules such as fats, oils, and phospholipids. They store energy, form cell membranes, and act as signaling molecules.

Nucleic Acids

DNA and RNA, which store and transmit genetic information. They are composed of nucleotide monomers.

Prokaryotic Cells

Lacks a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Example: bacteria and archaea.

Eukaryotic Cells

Have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. Found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists.

Nucleus

Stores DNA and controls cell activities.

Ribosomes

Synthesize proteins from RNA.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes, involved in protein synthesis. Smooth ER: Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.

Golgi Apparatus

Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins for transport.

Mitochondria

Generate ATP through cellular respiration.

Chloroplasts

Conduct photosynthesis, converting sunlight into energy. (in plants)

Lysosomes

Digest waste materials and cellular debris.

Vacuoles

Store nutrients and waste products; large in plant cells.

Cytoskeleton

Provides structural support and facilitates movement within the cell.

Plasma Membrane

A phospholipid bilayer that regulates what enters and exits the cell. It is selectively permeable, with proteins embedded to aid in transport, communication, and cell recognition.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

The main energy carrier in cells. It consists of adenine, a ribose sugar, and three phosphate groups. Energy is released when ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate.

Cellular Respiration

The process by which cells convert glucose and oxygen into ATP, carbon dioxide, and water.

Glycolysis

Occurs in the cytoplasm, breaks down glucose into pyruvate.

Pyruvate Decarboxylation

Converts pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA, releasing CO2.

Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle)

Acetyl-CoA is oxidized, releasing CO2 and transferring electrons to NADH and FADH2.

Electron Transport Chain (ETC)

Located in the inner mitochondrial membrane, it uses electrons from NADH and FADH2 to produce ATP via oxidative phosphorylation.

Fermentation

In the absence of oxygen, cells can undergo fermentation to produce ATP. This process produces less ATP than cellular respiration but allows cells to continue functioning in anaerobic environments.

Photosynthesis

The process by which plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.

Light-dependent Reactions

Occur in the thylakoid membranes, where light energy is captured and used to generate ATP and NADPH.

Calvin Cycle

Occurs in the stroma, where ATP and NADPH are used to convert CO2 into glucose.

Signal Transduction Pathways

Cells communicate through signaling molecules like hormones. These molecules bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering a cascade of events inside the cell that lead to a response.

Negative Feedback

A process that reduces the output of a system, helping maintain homeostasis (e.g., insulin regulation of blood sugar levels).

Positive Feedback

A process that amplifies a response (e.g., blood clotting and childbirth).

Law of Segregation

Each organism has two alleles for each gene, and these alleles separate during gamete formation.

Law of Independent Assortment

Genes for different traits assort independently of one another during gamete formation.

Genotype

The genetic makeup of an organism (e.g., BB, Bb, bb).

Phenotype

The observable traits of an organism (e.g., blue eyes, tall plant).

Meiosis

A type of cell division that reduces the chromosome number by half, producing four genetically unique gametes (sperm or egg cells).

Transcription

The process by which an RNA copy of a gene is made. This occurs in the nucleus in eukaryotic cells. The enzyme RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA from a DNA template.

Translation

The process by which the mRNA sequence is translated into an amino acid sequence, forming a protein. This occurs at ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

Natural selection

The process by which traits that increase an organism’s chances of survival and reproduction become more common in a population over time.

Genetic drift

The random change in allele frequencies in a population. It is most significant in small populations.

Gene flow

The transfer of genetic material between populations due to migration.

Speciation

The formation of new and distinct species in the course of evolution. This can occur through processes like geographic isolation and reproductive isolation.

Biome

A large geographic biotic unit, defined by its climate and dominant vegetation types. Examples include forests, deserts, and tundra.

Population ecology

Studies the dynamics of populations, including growth patterns, carrying capacity, and the factors that regulate population size.

Community ecology

Focuses on the interactions between different species within an ecosystem, such as predation, competition, and symbiosis.