Actors whose interests are not widely shared by others; individuals or groups that are politically weak relative to the demands they make.
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Coercion
A strategy of imposing or threatening to impose costs on other actors in order to induce a change in their behavior.
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Provocation
A strategy of terrorist attacks intended to provoke the target government into making a disproportionate response that alienates moderates.
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Spoiling
A strategy of terrorist attacks intended to sabotage a prospective peace between the target and moderate leadership.
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Outbidding
A strategy of terrorist attacks designed to demonstrate superior capability and commitment relative to other groups devoted to the same cause.
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Comparative advantage
The ability of a country or firm to produce a particular good or service more efficiently than it can produce other goods or services.
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Absolute advantage
The ability of a country or firm to produce more of a particular good or service than other countries or firms can produce with the same amount of effort and resources.
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Neo-mercantilism
A belief that national economic policy should encourage exports and discourage imports to run a trade surplus.
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Heckscher-Ohlin trade theory
The theory that a country will export goods that make intensive use of the factors of production in which it is well endowed.
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Protectionism
The imposition of barriers to restrict imports.
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Trade barriers
Government limitations on the international exchange of goods.
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Tariff
A tax imposed on imports.
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Quantitative restriction (quota)
A limit placed on the amount of a particular good that is allowed to be imported and sold domestically.
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Nontariff barriers to trade
Obstacles to imports other than tariffs.
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Stolper-Samuelson theorem
The theorem that trade protection benefits the scarce factor of production.
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Ricardo-Ciner (specific-factors) model
A model that emphasizes the sector in which factors of production are employed rather than the nature of the factor itself.
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Reciprocity
A mutual agreement to lower tariffs and other barriers to trade.
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Most-favored-nation (MFN) status
A status guaranteeing that the signatories will extend to each other any favorable trading terms offered in agreements with third parties.
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World Trade Organization (WTO)
An institution created in 1995 to govern international trade relations and oversee the resolution of trade disputes.
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General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)
An international institution created in 1947 to reduce barriers to trade and provide similar trading conditions to all members.
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Regional trade agreements (RTAs)
Agreements among three or more countries to reduce barriers to trade among themselves.
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Less developed countries (LDCs)
Countries at a relatively low level of economic development.
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Infrastructure
Basic structures necessary for social activity, such as transportation and telecommunications networks.
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Primary products
Raw materials and agricultural products, typically unprocessed or only slightly processed.
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Oligopoly
A market or industry dominated by a few firms.
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Terms of trade
The relationship between a country’s export prices and its import prices.
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Import-substituting industrialization (ISI)
Policies aimed at reducing imports and encouraging domestic manufacturing.
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Export-oriented industrialization
Policies to spur manufacturing for export, often through subsidies and incentives.
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Group of 77
A coalition of developing countries in the UN that seeks changes to the international economic order.
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Commodity cartels
Associations of producers that restrict world supply of their products to raise prices.
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Human rights
The rights possessed by all individuals by virtue of being human.
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Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)
A declaration that forms the foundation of modern human rights law.
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International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)
An agreement detailing the basic civil and political rights of individuals.
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International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)
An agreement specifying basic economic, social, and cultural rights.
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International Bill of Rights
The UDHR, ICCPR, and ICESCR collectively forming the core of the international human rights regime.
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Nonderogable Rights
Rights that cannot be suspended for any reason.
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Prisoners of conscience (POCs)
Individuals imprisoned solely for the peaceful expression of their beliefs.
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Individual petition
A right permitting individuals to petition international legal bodies for rights violations.
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International criminal court
A court for human rights cases with specific jurisdictional conditions.
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Public goods
Products that are nonexcludable and nonrival in consumption.
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Common-pool resources
Goods available to everyone, but with rival consumption.
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Nonexcludable goods
Goods that cannot be prevented from being consumed by others once available.
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Nonrival goods
Goods whose consumption by one does not diminish availability for others.
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Kyoto Protocol
An amendment establishing targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions.
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Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
A framework convention to regulate emissions damaging the ozone layer.
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Montreal Protocol
An international treaty to phase out ozone-depleting substances.
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Cap-and-trade system
A system setting limits on emissions, allowing for buying and selling of credits.
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Nationally determined contribution (NDC)
The commitment each party to the Paris Agreement makes for reducing global warming.
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Externalities
Costs or benefits from an actor’s decision affecting others.