examining the structure of the human body, cadaver dissection, comparative anatomy, exploratory surgery, and medical imaging
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What are the levels of human structure (from most to least complex)
inspection (viewing), palpation (feeling), auscultation (listening), and percussion (tapping)
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What is the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans
no 2 humans are exactly alike
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What are some characteristics that distinguish living from non-living organisms
organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. NEED TO HAVE ALL TO BE CONSIDERED ALIVE
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What is the importance of physiological variations
Because people differ in height, weight, sex, age, etc, treatments must be modified to suit these differences.
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What is homeostasis and why is it central to physiology
the body's ability to detect a change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
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What is negative feedback
allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point. The response is opposite the stimulus. The body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it.
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What is negative feedbacks importance to homeostasis
loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death
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What is positive feedback
body senses change and amplifies it
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What is an example of positive feedback
child birth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals
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What is a beneficial effects of positive feedback
labor and blood clotting
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what is a harmful effect of positive feedback
the vicious cycle of runaway fever
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What is a gradient
a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between 2 points.
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What is an element
simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
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What is a compound
molecule composed of 2 or more different elements
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What is an ion
charged particle (atom or molecule) with unequal number of protons and electrons
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What is an electrolyte
substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting
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What is a covalent bond
polar and nonpolar bonds
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What is a nonpolar bond
electrons shared equally (strongest bond)
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What is a polar bond
electrons shared equally (spend more time near oxygen)
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What is a hydrogen bond
a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative Oxygen or Nitrogen atom in another
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What is an ionic bond
attractions between anions and cations, easily broken by water, and electrons are donated from one atom to another
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What are the biologically important properties of water
water's role as a solvent helps cells transport and use substances like oxygen or nutrients
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What is an acid
a proton donor (releases H+ ions in water)
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What is a base
A proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions)
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What is energy
capacity to do work
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What is work
to do work means to move something
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What is kinetic energy
the energy of motion (ex: water flowing through a dam, generating energy)
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What is potential energy
energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work (ex: water behind a dam)
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What is chemical energy
potential energy in molecular bonds
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What causes reaction rates to increase
if the reactants are more concentrated, the temperature rises, catalysts are present
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Why is carbon well suited to serve as the structural foundation of biological molecules
if there’s carbon, it’s organic. The carbon atom has unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as four different atoms
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What is the relevance of polymers to biology
used to build tissue and other components in living organisms
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How are polymers formed
monomers covalently bind together to form polymers with the removal of a water molecule
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How are polymers broken
Polymers are broken down into monomers via hydrolysis reactions
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What is dehydration synthesis
How living cells form polymers, hydroxy; (OH-) is removed from one monomer, and hydrogen from another. Producing water as a by-product
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What is hydrolosis
The opposite of dehydration synthesis. A water molecule ionizes into -OH and H+, the covalent bond linking one monomer to the other is broken, the OH- is then added to one monomer and the H+ the other.
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What is the functions of carbohydrates
it is an energy source, all digested carbs are converted into glucose and oxidized to make ATP
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What are 3 important monosaccharides
glucose, galactose and fructose
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What are 3 important disaccharides
sucrose (table sugar), lactose (sugar in milk), and maltose (grain product)
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What are lipids
hydrophobic organic molecules with a high ratio of HYDROGEN to OXYGEN. Have more calories per gram than carbs. Primary function is energy storage
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What are the 3 most significant lipids
Triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids
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What is a phospholipid
similar to neutral fats except 1 fatty acid is replaces by a phosphate group
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What is a triglyceride
neutral fats. 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol. each bond is formed by dehydration synthesis. broken down by hydrolysis
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What is a steroid
a lipid with 17 carbon atoms in 4 rings
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What is a protein
a polymer of amino acids. Sometimes called a polypeptide. Proteins make up most of us
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What is an enzyme
catalyze reactions including digestion of molecules, production of 2nd messengers
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What is the structure of ATP
composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups
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How is ATP produced
from the process of cellular respiration in the mitochondria of a cell. This can be through aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does not. Aerobic respiration produces ATP (along with carbon dioxide and water) from glucose and oxygen.
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What is the function of ATP
stores energy gained from exergonic reactions and releases it within seconds for physiological work. Holds energy in covalent bonds.
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What are the 3 components of nucleotides
nitrogenous base, sugar, and 1 or more phosphate groups
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What was the development of the cell theory
\-all organisms composed of cells and cell products.
\-Cells are the simplest structural and functional unit of life. -An organism's structure and functions are due to the activities of cells
\-cells come only from pre-existing cells
\-cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities
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What is a squamous shaped cell
thin, flat and scaly
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What is a cuboidal shaped cell
squarish looking
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What is a columnar shaped cell
more tall than wide
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What is a polygonal-shaped cell
irregularly angular shapes
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What is a stellate shaped cell
star like
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What is a discoid shaped cell
disc shaped
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What is a fusiform shaped cell
thick in the middle, tapered towards the end
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What is a fibrous shaped cell
thread like
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What is a spheroid (to ovoid) shaped cell
round (to oval)
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How long are the average human cell
10-15 micrometers in diameter
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What is the average EGG cell size in humans
(very large) 100 micrometers in diameter
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How long can some NERVE cells be
over a meter long
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What can limit cell size
\-foreign increase in diameter
\-volume increases more than surface area
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Describe the viewing type of the light microscope (LM)
revealed plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm (fluid between nucleus and surface)
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Describe the viewing type of the transmission electron microscope (TEM)
improved resolution (ability to reveal detail)
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Describe the viewing type of the scanning electron microscope (SEM)
improved resolution further, but only for surface features
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What are the major components of a cell
plasma (cell) membrane, cytoplasm, and extracellular fluid (ECF)
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What is plasma (cell) membrane
surrounds the cell (defines boundaries) and is made of proteins & lipids
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What is cytoplasm
interior of cell (organelles (cytoplasm), cytoskeleton, inclusions, and cytosol) *very little space in cytoplasm*
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What is extracellular fluid (ECF)
fluid outside of cells includes tissue (interstitial) fluid
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What is the structure of the cell membrane
The fundamental structure of the membrane is the phospholipid bilayer, which forms a stable barrier between two aqueous compartments.
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What is the function of the plasma membrane
defines cell boundaries, governs interactions with other cells, controls the passage of materials in/out of cell
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What are the membrane lipids
phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
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What is a phospholipid
* 75% of membrane lipids are phospholipids * amphipathic molecules arranged in a bilayer * hydrophilic phosphate heads face water on each side of the membrane * hydrophobic tails: are directed toward the center (avoiding water) * drift laterally (keeping membrane fluid.
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What is the function of phospholipids in the plasma membrane
acts as a barrier that protects the cell and enables multiple cellular processes to occur.
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What is the function of cholesterol in the plasma membrane
* 20% of the membrane lipids * holds phospholipids still & can stiffen membrane
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What is the function of glycolipids in the plasma membrane
* 5% of the membrane lipids * phospholipids with short carb chains on the extracellular face * contributes to glycocalyx - carb coating cell surface
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What are the membrane proteins
* 2% of the molecules but 50% of the weight of the membrane * integral proteins and peripheral proteins
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What is the function of integral proteins in the plasma membrane
* penetrate membrane * transmembrane proteins pass completely * hydrophilic regions contact cytoplasm, extracellular fluid * hydrophobic regions pass through lipids of the membrane * some drift in the membrane, and others are anchored to the cytoskeleton
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What is the function of peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane
* adhere to one face of the membrane (does NOT penetrate it) * usually tethered to the cytoskeleton
communicates within the cell receiving chemical messages
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What are receptors
binds chemical signals
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What are channels
allow hydrophilic solutes and water to pass thru membrane (some are always open, some are gated)
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What are ligand-gated channels
responds to chemical messengers
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What are voltage-gated channels
respond to charge changes
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What are mechanically-gated channels
responds to physical stress on the cell
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What are carriers
binds solutes and transfers them across the membrane
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What are pumps
carriers that consume ATP
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What is a cell-identity marker
glycoproteins acting as identification tags
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What is a cell-adhesion marker
mechanically links cell to extracellular material
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What is the function of glycocalyx
* the thick, fuzzy outer covering of the plasma membrane * protects the cell * provides immunity to infection * defense against cancer * fertilization * embryonic development * helps the cell stay put in environments with a lot of stress
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What are microvilli
* extensions of the membrane (1-2 micrometers) * on some absorptive cells, they are very dense and appear as fringe (brush border)
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What are the functions of microvilli
* some microvilli have filaments that are tugged toward center of the cell to milk absorbed contents into the cell
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What are cillia
* monte cilia: respiratory tract, uterine tubes, ventricles of the brain, and ducts of testes * 50-200 on each cell * beat in waves, sweeping material across a surface in one direction
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What are the functions of cillia
* to move water relative to the cell in a regular movement of the cilia * cilia beat freely within a saline layer at the cell surface * chloride pumps Cl- into ECF * Na+ and H2O follow * mucus floats on top of the saline layer