Studied by 11 people
What is anatomy?
the study of structure
What is physiology
the study of function
What are ways to study human anatomy
examining the structure of the human body, cadaver dissection, comparative anatomy, exploratory surgery, and medical imaging
What are the levels of human structure (from most to least complex)
inspection (viewing), palpation (feeling), auscultation (listening), and percussion (tapping)
What is the clinical significance of anatomical variation among humans
no 2 humans are exactly alike
What are some characteristics that distinguish living from non-living organisms
organization, cellular composition, metabolism, responsiveness, movement, homeostasis, development, reproduction, and evolution. NEED TO HAVE ALL TO BE CONSIDERED ALIVE
What is the importance of physiological variations
Because people differ in height, weight, sex, age, etc, treatments must be modified to suit these differences.
What is homeostasis and why is it central to physiology
the body's ability to detect a change, activate mechanisms that oppose it, and thereby maintain relatively stable internal conditions
What is negative feedback
allows for dynamic equilibrium within a limited range around a set point. The response is opposite the stimulus. The body senses a change and activates mechanisms to reverse it.
What is negative feedbacks importance to homeostasis
loss of homeostatic control causes illness or death
What is positive feedback
body senses change and amplifies it
What is an example of positive feedback
child birth, blood clotting, protein digestion, and generation of nerve signals
What is a beneficial effects of positive feedback
labor and blood clotting
what is a harmful effect of positive feedback
the vicious cycle of runaway fever
What is a gradient
a difference in chemical concentration, charge, temperature, or pressure between 2 points.
What is an element
simplest form of matter to have unique chemical properties
What is a compound
molecule composed of 2 or more different elements
What is an ion
charged particle (atom or molecule) with unequal number of protons and electrons
What is an electrolyte
substances that ionize in water and form solutions capable of conducting
What is a covalent bond
polar and nonpolar bonds
What is a nonpolar bond
electrons shared equally (strongest bond)
What is a polar bond
electrons shared equally (spend more time near oxygen)
What is a hydrogen bond
a weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom in one molecule and a slightly negative Oxygen or Nitrogen atom in another
What is an ionic bond
attractions between anions and cations, easily broken by water, and electrons are donated from one atom to another
What are the biologically important properties of water
water's role as a solvent helps cells transport and use substances like oxygen or nutrients
What is an acid
a proton donor (releases H+ ions in water)
What is a base
A proton acceptor (accepts H+ ions)
What is energy
capacity to do work
What is work
to do work means to move something
What is kinetic energy
the energy of motion (ex: water flowing through a dam, generating energy)
What is potential energy
energy stored in an object, but not currently doing work (ex: water behind a dam)
What is chemical energy
potential energy in molecular bonds
What causes reaction rates to increase
if the reactants are more concentrated, the temperature rises, catalysts are present
Why is carbon well suited to serve as the structural foundation of biological molecules
if there’s carbon, it’s organic. The carbon atom has unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as four different atoms
What is the relevance of polymers to biology
used to build tissue and other components in living organisms
How are polymers formed
monomers covalently bind together to form polymers with the removal of a water molecule
How are polymers broken
Polymers are broken down into monomers via hydrolysis reactions
What is dehydration synthesis
How living cells form polymers, hydroxy; (OH-) is removed from one monomer, and hydrogen from another. Producing water as a by-product
What is hydrolosis
The opposite of dehydration synthesis. A water molecule ionizes into -OH and H+, the covalent bond linking one monomer to the other is broken, the OH- is then added to one monomer and the H+ the other.
What is the functions of carbohydrates
it is an energy source, all digested carbs are converted into glucose and oxidized to make ATP
What are 3 important monosaccharides
glucose, galactose and fructose
What are 3 important disaccharides
sucrose (table sugar), lactose (sugar in milk), and maltose (grain product)
What are lipids
hydrophobic organic molecules with a high ratio of HYDROGEN to OXYGEN. Have more calories per gram than carbs. Primary function is energy storage
What are the 3 most significant lipids
Triglycerides, phospholipids and steroids
What is a phospholipid
similar to neutral fats except 1 fatty acid is replaces by a phosphate group
What is a triglyceride
neutral fats. 3 fatty acids linked to glycerol. each bond is formed by dehydration synthesis. broken down by hydrolysis
What is a steroid
a lipid with 17 carbon atoms in 4 rings
What is a protein
a polymer of amino acids. Sometimes called a polypeptide. Proteins make up most of us
What is an enzyme
catalyze reactions including digestion of molecules, production of 2nd messengers
What is the structure of ATP
composed of adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups
How is ATP produced
from the process of cellular respiration in the mitochondria of a cell. This can be through aerobic respiration, which requires oxygen, or anaerobic respiration, which does not. Aerobic respiration produces ATP (along with carbon dioxide and water) from glucose and oxygen.
What is the function of ATP
stores energy gained from exergonic reactions and releases it within seconds for physiological work. Holds energy in covalent bonds.
What are the 3 components of nucleotides
nitrogenous base, sugar, and 1 or more phosphate groups
What was the development of the cell theory
-all organisms composed of cells and cell products.
-Cells are the simplest structural and functional unit of life. -An organism's structure and functions are due to the activities of cells
-cells come only from pre-existing cells
-cells of all species exhibit biochemical similarities
What is a squamous shaped cell
thin, flat and scaly
What is a cuboidal shaped cell
squarish looking
What is a columnar shaped cell
more tall than wide
What is a polygonal-shaped cell
irregularly angular shapes
What is a stellate shaped cell
star like
What is a discoid shaped cell
disc shaped
What is a fusiform shaped cell
thick in the middle, tapered towards the end
What is a fibrous shaped cell
thread like
What is a spheroid (to ovoid) shaped cell
round (to oval)
How long are the average human cell
10-15 micrometers in diameter
What is the average EGG cell size in humans
(very large) 100 micrometers in diameter
How long can some NERVE cells be
over a meter long
What can limit cell size
-foreign increase in diameter
-volume increases more than surface area
Describe the viewing type of the light microscope (LM)
revealed plasma membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm (fluid between nucleus and surface)
Describe the viewing type of the transmission electron microscope (TEM)
improved resolution (ability to reveal detail)
Describe the viewing type of the scanning electron microscope (SEM)
improved resolution further, but only for surface features
What are the major components of a cell
plasma (cell) membrane, cytoplasm, and extracellular fluid (ECF)
What is plasma (cell) membrane
surrounds the cell (defines boundaries) and is made of proteins & lipids
What is cytoplasm
interior of cell (organelles (cytoplasm), cytoskeleton, inclusions, and cytosol) very little space in cytoplasm
What is extracellular fluid (ECF)
fluid outside of cells includes tissue (interstitial) fluid
What is the structure of the cell membrane
The fundamental structure of the membrane is the phospholipid bilayer, which forms a stable barrier between two aqueous compartments.
What is the function of the plasma membrane
defines cell boundaries, governs interactions with other cells, controls the passage of materials in/out of cell
What are the membrane lipids
phospholipids, cholesterol and glycolipids
What is a phospholipid
75% of membrane lipids are phospholipids
amphipathic molecules arranged in a bilayer
hydrophilic phosphate heads face water on each side of the membrane
hydrophobic tails: are directed toward the center (avoiding water)
drift laterally (keeping membrane fluid.
What is the function of phospholipids in the plasma membrane
acts as a barrier that protects the cell and enables multiple cellular processes to occur.
What is the function of cholesterol in the plasma membrane
20% of the membrane lipids
holds phospholipids still & can stiffen membrane
What is the function of glycolipids in the plasma membrane
5% of the membrane lipids
phospholipids with short carb chains on the extracellular face
contributes to glycocalyx - carb coating cell surface
What are the membrane proteins
2% of the molecules but 50% of the weight of the membrane
integral proteins and peripheral proteins
What is the function of integral proteins in the plasma membrane
penetrate membrane
transmembrane proteins pass completely
hydrophilic regions contact cytoplasm, extracellular fluid
hydrophobic regions pass through lipids of the membrane
some drift in the membrane, and others are anchored to the cytoskeleton
What is the function of peripheral proteins in the plasma membrane
adhere to one face of the membrane (does NOT penetrate it)
usually tethered to the cytoskeleton
What are the functions of membrane proteins
receptors, 2nd-messenger systems, enzymes, channels, carriers, cell-identity markers and cell-adhesion markers
What is a second-messenger system
communicates within the cell receiving chemical messages
What are receptors
binds chemical signals
What are channels
allow hydrophilic solutes and water to pass thru membrane (some are always open, some are gated)
What are ligand-gated channels
responds to chemical messengers
What are voltage-gated channels
respond to charge changes
What are mechanically-gated channels
responds to physical stress on the cell
What are carriers
binds solutes and transfers them across the membrane
What are pumps
carriers that consume ATP
What is a cell-identity marker
glycoproteins acting as identification tags
What is a cell-adhesion marker
mechanically links cell to extracellular material
What is the function of glycocalyx
the thick, fuzzy outer covering of the plasma membrane
protects the cell
provides immunity to infection
defense against cancer
fertilization
embryonic development
helps the cell stay put in environments with a lot of stress
What are microvilli
extensions of the membrane (1-2 micrometers)
on some absorptive cells, they are very dense and appear as fringe (brush border)
What are the functions of microvilli
some microvilli have filaments that are tugged toward center of the cell to milk absorbed contents into the cell
What are cillia
monte cilia: respiratory tract, uterine tubes, ventricles of the brain, and ducts of testes
50-200 on each cell
beat in waves, sweeping material across a surface in one direction
What are the functions of cillia
to move water relative to the cell in a regular movement of the cilia
cilia beat freely within a saline layer at the cell surface
chloride pumps Cl- into ECF
Na+ and H2O follow
mucus floats on top of the saline layer
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