Introduction to Psychology (Chapter 1-4)

0.0(0)
studied byStudied by 2 people
learnLearn
examPractice Test
spaced repetitionSpaced Repetition
heart puzzleMatch
flashcardsFlashcards
Card Sorting

1/187

flashcard set

Earn XP

Description and Tags

Psychology

Study Analytics
Name
Mastery
Learn
Test
Matching
Spaced

No study sessions yet.

188 Terms

1
New cards

Psychology

the scientific study of behavior and mental processes

2
New cards

Psychologists try to:

describe, predict, and explain human behavior and mental processes using scientific methods to find answers

3
New cards

Behavioral neuroscience

focuses on how the brain and the nervous system, as well as other biological aspects of the body, determine behavior

4
New cards

Experimental psychology

studies the processes of sensing, perceiving, learning, and thinking about the world

5
New cards

Cognitive psychology

is a sub-specialty of experimental psychology focusing on higher mental processes, such as
thinking, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, judging, decision making, and language

6
New cards

Developmental psychology

studies how people grow and change from the moment of conception through death

7
New cards

Personality psychology

focuses on consistency in people’s behavior across their lives as well as traits that differentiate one person from another.

8
New cards

Health psychology

explores the relationship between psychological factors and physical ailments or disease

9
New cards

Clinical psychology

deals with the study, diagnosis, and treatment of psychological disorders

10
New cards

Counseling psychology

focuses primarily on educational, social, and career adjustment problems

11
New cards

Social psychology

studies how people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are affected by others

12
New cards

Cross-cultural psychology

investigates the similarities and differences in psychological functioning in and across various cultures and ethnic groups

13
New cards

Evolutionary psychology

considers how behavior is influenced by our genetic inheritance from our ancestors

14
New cards

Behavioral genetics

seeks to understand how we might inherit certain behavioral traits and how the environment influences whether we actually display such traits.

15
New cards

Clinical neuropsychology

unites the areas of neuroscience and clinical psychology and focuses on the origin of psychological disorders in biological factors

16
New cards

Where do most Psychologists work:

in an academic setting

17
New cards

women, 14%, minority group

Even though ____ out number men in this field. Only ___ of active psychologists are members of racial ____.

18
New cards

There are consequences to the underrepresentation of racial and ethnic minorities among psychologists:

-The field is diminished by a lack of diverse perspectives and talents.
-Underrepresentation deters minorities from entering the field.
-Because people tend to prefer to receive therapy from their own ethnic group, minorities are underserved.

19
New cards

A PhD (doctor of philosophy)

s a research degree that requires a dissertation based on an original investigation

20
New cards

A PsyD (doctor of psychology)

is obtained by psychologists who want to focus on the treatment of psychological
disorders.

21
New cards

psychiatrists

doctors who have a medical degree to specialize in the diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders

22
New cards

According to the American Psychological Association, undergraduate psychology programs should instruct students in:

• Critical thinking and an understanding of the scientific method;
• Ethical and social responsibility;
• Strong communication skills; and
• Opportunities for professional development.

23
New cards

The most common area of employment are in the social services:

As administrators, counselors, and providing direct care.

24
New cards

Structuralism

a focus on uncovering the fundamental mental
components of consciousness, thinking, and other kinds of mental states and activities (developed by Wilhelm Wundt)

25
New cards

Gestalt psychology

uses a series of principles to describe how we organize bits and pieces of information into meaningful wholes.

26
New cards

Introspection

a procedure used to study the structure of the
mind in which subjects are asked to describe in detail what they are experiencing when they are exposed to a stimulus

27
New cards

Over time, structuralism and the procedure of introspection were _____

challenged

28
New cards

Functionalism

an approach that concentrates on what the
mind does and the role of behavior in allowing people to adapt to their environments (developed by William James)

29
New cards

What did German scientists Hermann Ebbinghaus and Max Wertheimer propose?

Gestalt psychologists propose that “The whole is different from the sum of its parts,” meaning our perception, or understanding, of objects is greater and more meaningful than the individual elements that make up our perceptions.

30
New cards

worked on animal behavior and first woman to receive a doctorate in psychology

Margaret Floy Washburn

31
New cards

was one of the first psychologists to focus on child development and on women’s issues (menstrual cycles)

Leta Stetter Hollingworth

32
New cards

studied memory and was the first female president of the American Psychological Association

Mary Calkins

33
New cards

focused on the social and cultural factors behind personality, Founded the American Journal of Psychoanalysis

Karen Horney

34
New cards

was the first woman to head a psychology department at a state university, spearheading the study of personality traits.

June Etta Downey

35
New cards

Sigmund Freud’s daughter, made notable
contributions to the treatment of abnormal behavior

Anna Freud

36
New cards

pioneered work on how children of color
grew to recognize racial differences

Mamie Phipps Clark

37
New cards

Neuroscience, cognitive, behavioral, humanistic, psychodynamic

The 5 major perspectives of psychology

38
New cards

Neuroscience perspective

the approach that views behavior from the perspective of the brain, the nervous system, and other biological functions

39
New cards

Psychodynamic perspective

the approach based on the view that behavior is motivated by inner forces and conflicts about which we have little awareness or control (origins are linked to Sigmund Freud)

40
New cards

Behavioral perspective

the approach that suggests that the focus should be on external behavior that can be objectively measured and observed (John B. Watson was the first to use this approach but it was championed by B. F. Skinner)

41
New cards

Cognitive perspective

the approach that focuses on how people think, understand, and know about the world

42
New cards

Humanistic perspective

suggests individuals naturally strive to grow, develop, and be in control of their lives and
behavior, free will ( developed by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow)

43
New cards

1- Nature(heredity) versus nurture (environment)

2- Conscious versus unconscious causes of behavior.

3-Observable behavior versus internal mental processes.

4- Free will versus determinism

5- Individual differences versus universal principles

Psychology’s Key Issues and Controversies

44
New cards

Free will versus determinism

Free will: the idea that behavior is caused primarily by choices that are made freely by the individual.

Determinism: the idea that people’s behavior is produced primarily by factors outside their willful control.

45
New cards

Scientific method

an approach through which psychologists
systematically acquire knowledge and understanding about behavior and other phenomena of interest.

46
New cards

Theories:

broad explanations and predictions concerning
observations of interest

47
New cards

Hypothesis

a prediction, stemming from a theory, stated
in a way that allows it to be tested

48
New cards

Psychologists rely on formal theories and hypotheses formany reasons:

-To make sense of unorganized, separate observations and bits of data.
-To place observations and data within a coherent
framework.
-To move beyond known facts and make deductions about unexplained phenomena.
-To develop ideas for future investigation

49
New cards

Research is

systematic inquiry aimed at the discovery of new
knowledge and is a central ingredient of the scientific method in psychology

50
New cards

Archival research:

existing data are examined to test a hypothesis

51
New cards

Archival research advantages and disadvantages:

Advantage: inexpensive.
Disadvantage: the data may not be in a form that allows the researcher to test a hypothesis fully.

52
New cards

Naturalistic observation:

an investigator observes some naturally occurring behavior and does not make a change in the situation

53
New cards

Naturalistic observation advantages and disadvantages:

Advantage: obtains a sample of what people do in their natural habitat.
Disadvantage: the inability to control any factors of interest

54
New cards

Survey research

people chosen to represent a larger population are asked a series of questions about their behavior, thoughts, or attitudes

55
New cards

Survey research advantages and disadvantages

Advantage: if the sample is representative, makes it possible to infer how a larger group would respond.
Disadvantages: results will be largely inconsequential if the sample is not representative.

56
New cards

Case study

an in-depth, intensive investigation of an
individual or a small group of people

57
New cards

Case study advantages and disadvantages

Advantage: insights can improve our understanding of people in general.
Disadvantage: small samples or unique individuals make it impossible to make valid generalizations about a larger population

58
New cards

Variables

behaviors, events, or other characteristics that
can change, or vary, in some way

59
New cards

Correlational research

the relationship between two sets of variables is examined to determine whether they are associated or correlated

60
New cards

Correlational research advantages and disadvantages

Disadvantage: correlational research cannot demonstrate cause-and-effect relationships.

61
New cards

Experimental manipulation

the change that an experimenter deliberately produces in a situation.

62
New cards

Experimental manipulation advantage and disadvantage

Advantage: the only way psychologists can establish
cause-and-effect relationships.
Disadvantage: to be valid, requires careful controls.

63
New cards

experimental group vs. control group

Experimental group: any group participating in an
experiment that receives a treatment.
Control group: a group participating in an experiment that receives no treatment.

64
New cards

Independent vs Dependent variable

Independent variable: the variable that is manipulated by an experimenter.
Dependent variable: the variable that is measured in an experiment.

65
New cards

Random assignment to condition:

a procedure in which participants are assigned to different experimental groups or “conditions” on the basis of chance alone.

66
New cards

Significant outcome

indicates that the findings of a research study are statistically meaningful.

67
New cards

Replicated research

repetition of research, sometimes using other procedures, settings, and groups of participants, to increase confidence in prior findings

68
New cards

Meta-analysis

a procedure that permits psychologists to combine the results of many separate studies into one overall conclusion

69
New cards

Informed consent:

a document signed by participants affirming that they have been told about the basic outlines of the study and are aware of what their participation will involve

70
New cards

Debriefing:

after a participation in a study, participants
receive an explanation of the study and the procedures that were involved.

71
New cards

Animal research allows for:

-Posing different questions in different way.

-Greater experimental control.

-Procedures that might ethically not be possible with people.

72
New cards

Experimental bias

factors that distort the way the independent variable affects the dependent variable in an experiment

73
New cards

experimenter vs participant expectations

-An experimenter’s expectations can produce the expected result when the researcher unintentionally transmits cues to participants.
-
Participant expectations about appropriate behavior can also affect results.

74
New cards

Placebo

a false treatment, such as a pill, drug, or other
substance, without any significant chemical properties or active ingredient

75
New cards

Double-blind procedure

both the experimenter and the participant are “blind” to the nature of the substance being administered.

76
New cards

Behavioral neuroscientists, or biopsychologists

psychologists who specialize in considering the ways in which the biological structures and functions of the body affect behavior.

77
New cards

What are Neurons

-nerve cells, the basic components of the nervous
system

-have a cell body that contains a nucleus
- are physically held in place by glial cells

78
New cards

Dendrite:

a cluster of fibers at one end of a neuron that receive
messages from other neurons

79
New cards

Axon:

carries messages received by the dendrites to other
neurons

80
New cards

Terminal buttons:

the part of the axon, like a small bulge at the
end, that sends messages to other neurons.

81
New cards

Myelin sheath

a protective coating of fat and protein that
wraps around the axon. Also serves to increase the velocity with which electrical impulses travel through axons.

82
New cards

Neurons follow an all-or-none law:

they are either on or off

83
New cards

Resting state

state before a neuron is triggered, in which
there is a negative electrical charge of about −70 millivolts within the neuron.

84
New cards

Action potential

an electric nerve impulse that travels through a neuron’s axon when it is set off by a “trigger,”
changing the neuron’s charge from negative to positive

85
New cards

The speed at which an action potential travels along an axon is determined by the:

Axon’s size and Thickness of the myelin sheath

86
New cards

Neurons differ in terms of:

Quickness of an impulse moving along the axon and the Potential rate of firing.

87
New cards

Mirror neurons:

specialized neurons that fire not only when a person enacts a particular behavior but also when a person
simply observes another individual carrying out the same behavior

88
New cards

It also helps explain how and why humans have the capacity to understand others’ intentions. (ex: Feelings of empathy and Development of language in humans)

What mirror neurons do?

89
New cards

Synapse:

the space between two neurons where the axon
of a sending neuron communicates with the dendrites of a receiving neuron by using chemical messages

90
New cards

Neurotransmitters:

chemicals that carry messages across the synapse to the dendrite (and sometimes the cell body) of a receiving neuron.

91
New cards

Types of chemical message delivered by neurotransmitters:

Excitatory message and Inhibitory message

92
New cards

Excitatory message:

a chemical message that makes it more likely that a receiving neuron will fire and an action potential will travel down its axon.

93
New cards

Inhibitory message:

a chemical message that prevents or decreases the likelihood that a receiving neuron will fire.

94
New cards

SSRIs, or selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors:

permit certain neurotransmitters to remain active for a longer period at certain synapses, reducing the symptoms of depression

95
New cards

The human nervous system uses two basic structures:

Central nervous system and Peripheral nervous system

96
New cards

Central nervous system (CNS):

the part of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord

97
New cards

What does the spinal cord do

-Main means for transmitting messages between the brain and the body.
- Controls simple behaviors on its own, without any help from the brain

98
New cards

Kinds of neurons involved in reflexes:

Sensory (afferent) neurons and Motor (efferent) neurons

99
New cards

Sensory (afferent) neurons

transmit information from the perimeter of the body to the nervous system and brain

100
New cards

Motor (efferent) neurons:

communicate information from the brain and nervous system to the muscles and glands.