Unit 2: Cognition (Memory Edition)

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through the encoding storage, and retrieval of information

Encoding

The process of getting information into the new memory system, by extracting meaning

Storage

The process by retaining encoded information over time

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory storage

Multi-Store Model

Any theory hypothesizing that information can be retained in any of several memory storage systems, usually of short-term, and long-term variety as a 3-part system

Sensory Memory

The immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

Iconic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

Echoic Memory

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

Short-Term Memory

Briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is stored later or forgotten typically for 15 to 30 seconds

Long-Term Memory

The relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

Working Memory

A newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active, processing, of both (1) incoming sensory information and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory. Used for temporarily holding and manipulating information

Central Executive

A memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad

Phonological Loop

A memory component that briefly holds auditory information

Visuospatial Sketchpad

A memory component that briefly holds information about objects, appearance, and location

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

An increase in a nerve cell’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory

Effortful Processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

Automatic Process

Unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space, time, and frequency, and of frequency or well-learned information such as sounds, smells, and word meanings

Levels of Processing Model

Theory that encoding into memory and subsequent retention depends on the depth of cognitive elaboration that the information receives and that deeper encoding improves encoding

Shallow Encoding

Encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words

Structural/Phonemic

Structural: encoding info based on its visual appearance. Phonemic: encoding info based on its sound

Deep Encoding

Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention

Chunking (Grouping)

Organizing items into familiar manageable units, often occurs automatically

Categories (Grouping)

Mental processes of organizing information by placing related experiences, concepts, or items together under a shared theme

Hierarchies (Grouping)

Information is arranged in levels, with related data grouped together in a way that prioritizes faster access to frequently used information

Mnemonics

Memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Method of Loci

A mnemonic technique in which the items to be remembered are converted into mental images and associated with specific positions or locations

Explicit Memories

Retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and “declare” (Also called declarative memory)

Semantic Memory

Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems

Episodic Memory

Explicit memory of personally experienced events

Autobiographical Memory

A person’s memory for episodes or experiences that occurred in their own life

Implicit Memories

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations in independent or conscious recollection (Also called nondeclarative memory)

Procedural Memory

Long-term memory for the skills involved in particular tasks

Prospective Memory

Remembering to do something in the future

Massed Practice “Cramming”

A learning procedure in which practice trials occur close together in time, either in a single lengthy session or in sessions separated by short intervals

Spacing Effect “Distributed Practice”

Distributing to be learned information across time in short, interrupted study sessions leads to better long-term retention than continuous massed sessions

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory

Elaborative Rehearsal

Encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows

Retrieval Cues

A prompt or stimulus used to guide memory recall

Recall

To transfer prior learning or past experiences to current consciousness: to retrieve and reproduce information; to remember

Recognition

Sense of awareness and familiarity experienced when one encounters people, events, or objects that have been encountered before

Context-Dependent Memory

Phenomenon where the context in which information was learned enhances the recall of that information

State-Dependent Memory

A condition in which memory for a past event is improved when the person is in the same biological or psychological state as when the memory was initially formed

Mood-Congruent Memory

Consistency between one’s mood state and the emotional context of memories recalled

Serial Position Effect

The effect of an item’s position in a list of items to be learned on how well it is remembered

Primacy Effect

The tendency for facts, impressions, or items that are presented first to be better learned or remembered than material presented later in the sequence

Recency Effect

Memory phenomenon in which the most recently presented facts, impressions, or items are learned or remembered better than material presented earlier

Testing Effect

The finding that taking a test on previously studied material leads to better retention than does restudying that material for an equivalent amount of time

Metacognition

Awareness of one’s own cognitive processes, often involving a conscious attempt to control them

The Forgetting Curve

A graphic depiction of the amount of forgetting overtime after learning has taken place

Encoding Failure

Cognitive phenomenon that occurs when information fails to be effectively transferred and stored in the memory system due to insufficient or inadequate processing during the stage of encoding

Proactive Interference

Interference in new learning due to previous learning of similar or related material

Retroactive Interference

Interference that occurs when new learning or exposure to new info impairs the ability to remember material or carry out activities previously learned, especially if they are similar

Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon

The experience of attempting to retrieve from memory a specific name or word, but not being able to do so

Source Amnesia

Impaired memory for how, when, or where information was learned despite good memory for the information itself

Anterograde Amnesia

Memory disorder that prevents the formation of new memories after the onset of the condition

Retrograde Amnesia

Inability to access memories formed before the onset of amnesia

Infantile Amnesia

The commonly experienced inability to recall events from early childhood

Alzheimer’s Disease

Brain disorder that slowly destroys memory and thinking skills

Repression

The basic defense mechanism that excludes painful experiences and unacceptable impulses from consciousness

Constructive Memory

Involving the use of general knowledge stored in one’s memory to construct a more complete and detailed account of an event or experience by changing or filling various features of the memory

Misinformation Effect

Phenomenon in which a person mistakenly recalls misleading information that an experimenter has provided, instead of accurately recalling the correct information that had been presented earlier