Studied by 1 PersonTags & Description
Immunology
study of a host’s reactions when foreign substances are introduced into the body.
antigens
A foreign substance that induces such an immune response is called _____________
immunity
the condition of being resistant to infection
1960s
It was not until the ______ that the cells responsible for the immune response were identified and characterized.
smallpox scab
The first written records of immunological experimentation date back to the 1500s, when the Chinese developed a practice of inhaling powder made from ________s in order to produce protection against this dreaded disease.
variolation
The prac tice of deliberately exposing an individual to material from smallpox lesions was known as ________
Edward Jenner
An English country doctor by the name of___________discovered a remarkable relationship between exposure to cowpox and immunity to smallpox.
vaccination
This procedure of injecting cellular material became known as ________
vacca
Vaccination came from the latin word _____ which means cow
cross-immunity.
The phenomenon in which exposure to one agent produces protection against another agent is known as ________.
Attenuation
may occur through heat, aging, or chemical means, and it remains the basis for many of the immunizations that are used today.
Louis Pasteur
In working with the bacteria that caused chicken cholera, _____________, a key figure in the development of both microbiology and immunology, accidentally found that old cultures would not cause disease in chickens
rabies
Pasteur applied the same principle of attenuation to the prevention of _________, a fatal disease at that time.
Elie Metchnikoff
a Russian scientist, observed that foreign objects introduced into transparent starfish larvae became surrounded by motile cells that attempted to destroy these invaders. He called this process phagocytosis.
Phagocytosis
Process by which cells eat cells.
Almoth Wright
In 1903, an English physician named ____________linked the two theories by showing that the immune response involved both cellular and humoral elements
opsonins
Wright observed that certain humoral, or circulating, factors called _____________acted to coat bacteria so that they became more susceptible to ingestion by phagocytic cells.
antibodies, acute-phase reactants
These serum factors include specific proteins known as and nonspecific factors called__________ that increase nonspecifically in any infection.
Natural, or innate immunity
is the ability of the individual to resist infection by means of normally present body functions.
No prior exposure is required, and the response does not change with subsequent exposures.
Acquired immunity
is a type of resistance that is characterized by specificity for each individual pathogen, or microbial agent, and the ability to remember a prior exposure, which results in an increased response upon repeated exposure.
External
_______defense system is designed to keep microorganisms from entering the body.
inflammation
The process of________ brings cells and humoral factors to the area in need of healing
external defense system
is composed of structural barriers that prevent most infectious agents from entering the body.
lactic acid in sweat and fatty acids from sebaceous glands
maintain the skin at a pH of approximately 5.6. This acid pH keeps most microorganisms from growing.
urine
he flushing action of ______, plus its slight acidity, helps to remove many potential pathogens from the genitourinary tract
Lysozyme
is an enzyme found in many secretions such as tears and saliva, and it attacks the cell walls of microorganisms, especially those that are gram-positive.
competitive exclusion
In many locations of the body, there is normal flora that often keeps pathogens from establishing themselves in these areas. This phenomenon is known as
Internal defense system
is designed to recognize molecules that are unique to infectious organ- isms.4 This typically involves recognizing a carbohydrate such as mannose that is found in microorganisms and is not evident on human cells.
Phagocytosis
This process destroys most of the foreign invaders that enter the body, and it is the most important function of the internal defense system.
acute-phase reactants
Phagocytosis is enhanced by soluble factors called __________________.
Acute-phase reactants
are normal serum constituents that increase rapidly by at least 25 percent due to infection, injury, or trauma to the tissues.5
hepatocytes
liver parenchymal cells
hepatocytes
Acute phase reactant are produced by _________.
12-24
Acute phase reactant are produced within _________.hours
cytokines
intercellular signaling polypeptides
IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α
Most common cell messengers
monocytes and macrophages
IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α are produced by ______at the sites of inflammation
C-reactive protein
is a trace constituent of serum originally thought to be an antibody to the c-polysaccharide of pneumococci. It increases rapidly within 4 to 6 hours following infection, surgery, or other trauma to the body.
19 hours
Plasma half-life of C-Reactive Protein
age
C-Reactive Protein is directly proportional to ___
118,000 daltons
C-reactive protein is a homogeneous molecule with a molecular weight of _____________ and a structure that consists of five identical subunits held together by noncovalent bonds.
C-Reactive proteins
acts somewhat like an antibody, as it is capable of opsonization (the coating of foreign particles), agglutination, precipitation, and activation of complement by the classical pathway.
phosphocholine
common constituent of microbial membranes.
phosphocholine
main substrate of CRP
CRP
an be thought of as a primitive, nonspecific form of antibody molecule that is able to act as a defense against microorganisms or foreign cells until specific antibodies can be produced.
CRP
The most widely used indicator of acute inflammation
1.5 mg/L for men to 2.5 mg/L for women
Normal levels CRP for men and women, respectively
Serum amyloid A
It is an apolipoprotein that is synthesized in the liver and has a molecular weight of 11,685 daltons
30ug/ml
Normal circulating levels are approximately of Serum Amyloid A is
serum amyloid A
By removing cholesterol from cholesterol-filled macrophages at the site of tissue injury, _________contributes to the cleaning up of the area.
Alpha1-Antitrypsin
general plasma inhibitor of proteases released from leukocytes, especially elastase.
Elastase
Is an endogenous enzyme that can degrade elastin and collagen.
alpha1-antitrypsin
acts to “mop up” or counteract the effects of neutrophil invasion during an inflammatory response. It also regulates expression of proinflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-1�, and interleukin-6, mentioned previously.
premature emphysema
Alpha1-antitrypsin deficiency can result in ___________-
Homozygous inheritance of this most severe variant gene may lead to development of cirrhosis, hepatitis, or hepatoma in early childhood.6
Fibrinogen
is the most abundant of the coagulation factors in plasma, and it forms the fibrin clot.
100 to 400 mg/dL
Normal levels of fibrinogen
340,000
Fibrinogen, is a molecule , is a dimer with a molecular weight of _______ daltons
thrombin
A small portion of fibrinogen is cleaved by________ to form fibrils that make up a fibrin clot.
Haptoglobin
is an alpha2-globulin with a molecular weight of 100,000 daltons. Its primary function is to bind irreversibly to free hemoglobin released by intravascular hemolysis.
de novo synthesis
The rise in plasma haptoglobin is due to__________ by the liver and does not represent release of previously formed haptoglobin from other sites
40 to 290 mg/dL
Normal plasma concentrations range from ___________________
Haptoglobin
____________ plays an important role in protecting the kidney from damage and in preventing the loss of iron by urinary excretion
free hemoglobin
a powerful oxidizing agent that can generate peroxides and hydroxyl radicals
Ceruloplasmin
consists of a single polypeptide chain with a molecular weight of 132,000 daltons.6 It is the principal copper-transporting protein in human plasma, binding 90 to 95 percent of the copper found in plasma by attach- ing six cupric ions per molecule.
Wilson’s disease
A depletion of ceruloplasmin is found in _________, an autosomal recessive genetic disorder characterized by a massive increase of copper in the tissues.
Complement
refers to a series of serum proteins that are normally present and whose overall function is mediation
Mannose-Binding Protein
is a trimer that acts as an opsonin, which is calcium-dependent. It is able to recognize foreign carbohydrates such as mannose and several other sugars found primarily on bacteria, some yeasts, viruses, and several parasites.
granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils are considered _________.
Neutrophil
represents approximately 50 to 70 percent of the total peripheral white blood cells.
Neutrophils
These are around 10 to 15 µm in diameter, with a nucleus that has between two and five lobes They contain a large number of neutral staining granules, which are classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary granules.
azurophilic granules
Primary granules, also called _______________, contain enzymes such as myeloperoxidase; elastase; proteinase 3; lysozyme; cathepsin G; and defensins, small proteins that have antibacterial activity.2
Secondary granules
are characterized by the presence of collagenase, lactoferrin, lysozyme, reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase, and other membrane proteins normally associated with the plasma membrane.
lysosomes
Acid hydrolases are found in separate compartments called
diapedesis
Marginating occurs to allow neutrophils to move from the circulating blood to the tissues through a process known as ___________, or movement through blood vessel walls.
selectins
Receptors known as selectins help make neutrophils sticky and enhance adherence to______________ that make up the vessel wall.
Chemotaxins
are chemical messengers that cause cells to migrate in a particular direction.
5
Once in the tissues, neutrophils have a life span of about __days
Eosinophil
are approximately 12 to 15 µm in diameter, and they normally make up between 1 and 3 percent of the circulating white blood cells in a nonallergic person. Their number increases in an allergic reaction or in response to many parasitic infections.
Eosinophil
The nucleus is usually bilobed or ellipsoidal and is often eccentrically located
eosinophil
Their most important role is neutralizing basophil and mast cell products and killing certain parasites
Basophils
are found in very small numbers, representing less than 1 percent of all circulating white blood cells. The smallest of the granulocytes, they are between 10 to 15 µm in diameter and contain coarse, densely staining deep-bluish- purple granules that often obscure the nucleus
Basophils
Constituents of these granules are histamine, a small amount of heparin, and eosinophil chemotactic factor-A, all of which have an important function in inducing and maintaining immediate hypersensitivity reactions
Histamine
Is a vasoactive amine that contracts smooth muscle
