Psych 102- Observational Learning, Thinking and Intelligence

What are the three rules of Behavior Modification?

1. The behavior to be modified must be defined precisely

2. Reinforcement must occur immediately

3. The reinforcing event must be sufficiently pleasant or unpleasant.

What are extrinsic reinforcers?

reinforcers that are outwardly expressed (money, promotion, praise)

What are intrinsic reinforcers?

reinforcers that are inherently related to the activity being reinforced (ex. inner feeling of enjoyment that comes with doing something well)

What happens if you add an extrinsic reward to intrinsic rewards?

If you take away the extrinsic reward from the previously intrinsic activity, the level of motivation to continue that behavior is lowered.

What are some problems with punishment?

- must be applied immediately and consistently

- does not teach or promote acceptable behaviors

-may produce levels of fear and hostility

-results likely to be temporary

- may model aggression

What have some studies said that physical punishment causes in children?

aggression, behavioral problems, and lowered self-esteem.

What are some alternatives to punishment?

1. Reinforce an incompatible behavior

2. Stop reinforcing the problem behavior

3. Reinforce the nonoccurrence of the problem behavior

4. remove the opportunity to obtain positive reinforcement

What is latent learning?

learning that remains hidden until its application becomes useful

What discover did Tolman discover about animals?

animals can learn a cognitive map or mental representation

What is observational learning?

behavior that can be learned without direct reinforcement or punishment and is associated by learning from others.

What is a model?

the individual performing the imitated behavior

What are mirror neurons?

neurons that fire when an individual performs an action, or when an individual observes an action.

Who is the father of Social Learning Theory?

Bandura

What is the social learning theory?

the belief that observational learning is not just imitation but also the internal mental states of the individual

What did Bandura believe behavior consisted of?

observation, imitation, positive consequences, and cognitive processes.

What are the steps of learning from a model?

1. Attention- focus on the behavior

2. Retention- remember what you observed

3. Reproduction- the ability to perform behavior

4. Motivation- must want to copy the behavior

What is vicarious reinforcement/punishment?

When a person's behavior changes based on consequences that happen to an observed model

What experiment highlighted vicarious reinforcement/punishment?

Bandura's Bobo Doll Experiment

What may media violence do to children?

teach attitudes, norms, and aggressive solutions to problems

How can media violence be harmful?

-Violence is often committed by attractive perpetrators

-violence is unpunished

-victim's pain is not portrayed

What is differential susceptibility?

Differential susceptibility is a psychological concept that explains how individuals vary in their sensitivity to both positive and negative environmental influences, suggesting that some people are more affected by their surroundings than others.

What is cognition?

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

What are concepts?

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Concepts can either be concrete or _________

abstract

What are natural concepts?

concepts people form as a result of their experiences in the real world

What are artificial concepts?

Concepts that are defined by a very specific set of characteristics

What is a prototype?

a mental image or best example of a category

What are propositions?

connections between concepts

What is a schema?

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information

What are role schemas?

ideas about the behaviour which is expected from someone in a certain role, setting or situation

What are event schemas?

Appropriate sequences of action In well-known everyday activities

Perception and memory is organized around our _______.

Schemas

Information that does not fit schemas are often _________.

ignored

Information that does not fit will be _________ in the direction of the schema.

distorted

What type of cognitive processing is associated with timesaving, energy-saving, and can lead to errors?

Automatic Processing

What type of cognitive processing is associated with critical thinking, problem solving, and effort?

Systematic Processing

What is a strategy that involves following a specific rule, procedure, or method, that inevitably produces the correct solution?

Algorithm

What is heuristics?

mental shortcuts, ways of framing a problem or situation to reduce its complexity

Heuristics tend to be applied ________, and the guarantee of solution is _______.

automatically, lost

What is a mental set?

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

What is functional fitness?

mental sets about function limit usage

What is it called when there is a tendency to focus on one piece of information when making a decision?

Anchoring Bias

What is it called when you are only looking for confirming evidence?

Confirmation Bias

What is it called when there is a distortion of memory that leads to over confidence in your ability to make predictions?

Hindsight Bias

What is representativeness?

How close the sample of people is to reflect the society they are researching broadly.

What is availability heuristics?

estimating the likelihood of an event on their availability in our memory

What is the communication system involving words and systematic rules to transmit information from one person to another?

Language

What are the words in a given language?

Lexicon

The rules used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon.

Grammar

The way words are organized into sentences

Syntax

The smallest unit of language that conveys some kind of meaning

morpheme

A basic unit of sound

phoneme

The meaning behind language

semantics

What did Skinner believe about language development?

It is developed through reinforcements

Who believed that language is biologically determined?

Chomsky

What are critical periods?

times during which certain environmental influences can have an impact on the development of the infant

Who believed that intelligence consisted of one general factor, g.

Spearman

Who believed in crystallized and fluid intelligence?

Cattell

What is crystallized knowledge?

stays same in age, facts, acquired knowledge.

What is fluid knowledge?

problem solving, how to do something, decreases in age.

Who believed that intelligence is split into three categories: analytic, creative, and practical?

Sternberg

Who believed in the multiple intelligence theory? (Music smart, self-smart, body smart, etc.)

Gardners

What is emotional intelligence?

The ability to regulate and identify others and your own emotions.

What is interpersonal intelligence?

The ability to understand and interact effectively with others

What is intrapersonal intelligence?

the ability to understand oneself

What is divergent thinking?

Thinking outside the box- creative thinking to find as many solutions as possible to a single problem

What is convergent thinking?

thinking in only correct or well established answers

What does IQ stand for?

intelligence quotient

What are the two kinds of ways IQ tests can be administered?

Standardized and Norming

What is it called when a test is administered consistently in the manner of scoring, administration, and interpretation?

Standardized

What is it called when data is paired in groups and reliable from norms?

Norming

What is the overall consensus on the genetics/intelligence debate?

There is evidence to prove that genetics has some effect, but also does environment

Is there a difference in IQ of infants of different races?

No

Is there a significant difference between men and women's IQ?

No

What is a stereotype threat?

decrease in performance when presented with a negative stereotype

Intelligence tests are historically not culture _____ or culturally _____.

free, fair

What are the steps to properly interpret group differences?

1. Acknowledge that group differences do exist

2. Be sure all measures are properly understood and interpreted

3. Correlation does not equal causation

4. consider other environmental causes or explanations

What is reproductive memory?

Accurate retrieval of information from memory, without significant alteration

What is reconstructive memory?

reconstruct the past from pieces of information, using theories to guess what happened.

What metaphor can be used to describe the process of memory, and what steps does it use?

A computer, encoding, storage, and retrieval system

What does the encoding step in memory do?

Transfer information into a memory representation, label and codes memories

What is automatic information processing?

Effortless processing of information

What is systematic processing?

Effortful processing that uses critical thinking.

What steps does the Atkinson-Shifrin Model have for memory processing?

Sensory Register-->Short-Term Storage--->Long Term Storage

What are some characteristics of sensory memory?

-no meaning

-focuses on sensation/perception

-briefly retains information to allow for later integration.

How long does vision memory last?

1/2 a second

How long does hearing memory last?

2-4 seconds

What are some characteristics of short-term memory?

-limited capacity

-temporary but longer than sensory

-through encoding

-lasts about 20 seconds

What is another kind of memory that is in the short-term memory step?

Working memory

What are some characteristics of working memory?

-conscious processing of information

-more like a status

-following instructions, problem solving, etc.

What is the ability to condense information?

Chunking

What are some characteristics of chunking?

-requires effort

-does not increase with WM capacity

-Its capacity correlates strongly with IQ, reasoning, and reading comprehension.

-changes with age

What is memory consolidation?

transferring short-term memories to permanent storage or long-term memory

What process can memory consolidation be achieved by?

Rehearsal

What is maintenance rehearsal?

Repeating information over and over to hold it in short-term memory longer.

What is elaborate rehearsal?

the process of retaining information that involves relating stimuli to information you already have stored in memory and applying it to new material; takes more effort but lasts longer

What two sections are long-term memories separated into?

Explicit and Implicit

What sections are explicit memories separated into?

Semantic and Episodic

What are Explicit memories?

memories that are consciously available such as facts and personal experiences

What is semantic memory?

facts and general knowledge that are not tied to a time or place