Chapter 2: The Biological Perspective

Flashcards on Chapter 2: The Biological Perspective covering neurons, action potential, neurotransmitters, brain structures, and divisions of the nervous system.

Nervous System

A network of cells that carries information to and from all parts of the body.

Biological Psychology

Branch of neuroscience that focuses on the biological bases of psychological processes, behavior, and learning; also known as behavioral neuroscience.

Neuron

The basic cell that makes up the nervous system and receives and sends messages within that system.

Neuron Diagram

Diagram illustrating the main structural components of a neuron including dendrites, soma, nucleus, axon, myelin sheath, node, axon terminals, and synapse.

Dendrites

Branchlike structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Soma

The cell body of the neuron responsible for maintaining the life of the cell.

Axon

Long, tubelike structure that carries the neural message to other cells.

Axon Terminals

Rounded areas at the end of the branches at the end of the axon, responsible for the chemical part of neural communication.

Glial Cells

Cells that provide support for neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, and produce myelin to coat axons.

Myelin

Fatty substances produced by certain glial cells that coat the axons of neurons to insulate, protect, and speed up the neural impulse.

Resting Potential

The state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse, measured at $-70\,\text{mV}$.

Action Potential

The release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge within the axon, flipping the cell's charge from $-70\,\text{mV}$ to about $+40\,\text{mV}$.

All-or-None

The principle stating that a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all.

Synaptic Vesicles

Saclike structures found inside the axon terminal containing chemical substances.

Neurotransmitter

Chemical found in the synaptic vesicles that, when released, has an effect on the next cell.

Synapse

Microscopic fluid-filled space between the axon terminal of one cell and the dendrites or soma of the next cell; also called the synaptic gap.

Receptor Sites

Three-dimensional proteins on the surface of dendrites or certain cells of muscles and glands, shaped to fit only certain neurotransmitters.

Excitatory Synapse

Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to fire.

Inhibitory Synapse

Synapse at which a neurotransmitter causes the receiving cell to stop firing.

Antagonists

Chemical substances that block or reduce a cell’s response to the action of other chemicals or neurotransmitters.

Agonists

Chemical substances that mimic or enhance the effects of a neurotransmitter on the receptor sites of the next cell, increasing or decreasing the activity of that cell.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

Excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in arousal, attention, memory, and controls muscle contractions.

Norepinephrine (NE)

Mainly excitatory neurotransmitter involved in arousal, mood, attention, blood flow, and sleep/wakefulness.

Dopamine (DA)

Excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in control of movement and sensations of pleasure.

Serotonin (5-HT)

Excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in sleep, mood, anxiety, and appetite.

Gamma-aminobutyric Acid (GABA)

Major inhibitory neurotransmitter involved in sleep; inhibits movement.

Glutamate

Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory formation, nervous system development, and synaptic plasticity.

Endorphins

Inhibitory neural regulators involved in pain relief.

Oxytocin

A hormone and neurotransmitter related to the onset of lactation in new mothers and emotional attachment or bonding.

Reuptake

Process by which neurotransmitters are taken back into the synaptic vesicles.

Enzymatic Degradation

Process by which the structure of a neurotransmitter is altered by an enzyme so it can no longer act on a receptor.

Medulla

The first large swelling at the top of the spinal cord, forming the lowest part of the brain, responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.

Pons

Larger swelling just above the medulla that connects the top of the brain to the bottom, playing a part in sleep, dreaming, left–right body coordination, and arousal.

Reticular Formation (RF)

An area of neurons running through the middle of the medulla and the pons and slightly beyond, responsible for general attention, alertness, and arousal.

Cerebellum

Part of the lower brain located behind the pons that controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.

Limbic System

A group of several brain structures located primarily under the cortex and involved in learning, emotion, memory, and motivation.

Thalamus

Part of the limbic system located in the center of the brain that relays sensory information from the lower part of the brain to the proper areas of the cortex.

Hypothalamus

Small structure in the brain located below the thalamus and directly above the pituitary gland, responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex.

Hippocampus

Curved structure located within each temporal lobe, responsible for the formation of long-term declarative memories.

Amygdala

Brain structure located near the hippocampus, responsible for fear responses, memory of fear, and interpreting nonverbal emotional expressions.

Cingulate Cortex

The primary cortical component of the limbic system found in the cortex, involved in emotional and cognitive processing.

Cortex

Outermost covering of the brain consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

Corticalization

Wrinkling of the cortex that allows a much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the small space inside the skull.

Corpus Callosum

Thick band of neural fibers that connects the left and right cerebral hemispheres of the brain.

Frontal Lobes

Areas of the cortex located in the front and top of the brain, responsible for higher mental processes, decision-making, and the production of fluent speech.

Motor Cortex

Rear section of the frontal lobe responsible for sending motor commands to the muscles of the somatic nervous system.

Mirror Neurons

Neurons that fire when performing an action or observing others performing actions.

Parietal Lobes

Sections of the brain located at the top and back of each cerebral hemisphere containing the centers for touch, temperature, and body position.

Somatosensory Cortex

Area of neurons running down the front of the parietal lobes responsible for processing information from the skin and internal body receptors for touch, temperature, and body position.

Temporal Lobes

Areas of the cortex along the sides of the brain, starting just behind the temples, containing neurons responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.

Occipital Lobe

Section of the brain located at the rear and bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing the visual centers of the brain.

Association Areas

Areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.

Broca’s Aphasia

Condition resulting from damage to Broca’s area causing an inability to speak fluently, mispronounce words, and speak haltingly.

Wernicke’s Aphasia

Condition resulting from damage to Wernicke’s area causing an inability to understand or produce meaningful language.

Spatial Neglect

Condition produced by damage to parietal lobe association areas of the right hemisphere, resulting in an inability to recognize objects or body parts in the left visual field.

Central Nervous System (CNS)

Part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and spinal cord.

Afferent Neuron

A sensory neuron that carries information from the senses to the central nervous system.

Efferent Neuron

A motor neuron that carries messages from the central nervous system to the muscles of the body.

Interneuron

A neuron found in the center of the spinal cord that receives information from sensory neurons and sends commands to muscles through efferent neurons.

Reflex Arc

The connection of afferent neurons to interneurons to efferent neurons, resulting in a reflex action.

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

All nerves and neurons that are not contained in the brain and spinal cord but run through the body itself.

Somatic Nervous System

Nerves that control the voluntary muscles of the body, carrying sensory information and controlling movement of skeletal muscles.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Nerves that control involuntary muscles, organs, and glands, automatically regulating digestion, blood pressure, and pupil dilation.

Sympathetic Division

Part of the ANS that prepares the body to react and expend energy in times of stress; also known as the fight-or-flight system.

Parasympathetic Division

Part of the ANS that maintains body functions under ordinary conditions, restores the body to normal functioning, and saves energy.

Major Structures of the Human Brain Diagram

Anatomical diagram depicting major structures of the brain including cerebral cortex, corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, pons, medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum, hippocampus, amygdala, and basal ganglia.

Lobes and Cortical Areas Diagram

Diagram mapping the anatomical regions of the cerebral cortex including frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes, along with motor, somatosensory, visual, and auditory cortical areas.

Organization of the Nervous System Diagram

Hierarchical chart detailing the structural and functional divisions of the central and peripheral nervous systems.