Geography Urban Environments

What is an urban environment and a rural environment? (3+3)

Urban environment: human settlements with high population, population density and infrastructure

Rural environment: area with low population density and lacking infrastructure, often with wide open space

What is a megacity, where are they? (1+2)

Megacity: a city with at least 10 million people living in it (approx. 34)

- mostly in Asia, some in every other continent but Australasia

What factors lead to megacities? (2x4)

Economic reasons: transnational companies often locate factories or offices in urban areas, providing jobs

Push-pull factors: agricultural change where machinery is used instead of labour pushes people from rural areas, and the attraction of jobs in manufacturing or services rather than farming pulls people into cities

Government investment in cities: leads to rural areas declining and certain urban areas growing, which can be a vicious circle

State of development: countries which are still the least developed nations are unlikely to have megacities as they have not yet entered the period of rapid economic development that offers jobs in cities

Technological changes: changes in building construction, design and technology have allowed buildings that are of huge sizes, and sufficient infrastructure such as underground transport and drainage to provide for very large cities

Changes in natural increase: cities tend to help to lower mortality rates as access to imported medical care and technology, better access to food and improved sanitation bring down death rates. Birth rates may not have dropped

Population: in order to reach 10 million people in a single city a country needs a large population overall. Countries with very small populations are not likely to have 10 million living in one city

What is urbanisation? What is the urbanisation rate?

Urbanisation: increasing percentage of people living in towns and cities

Rate of urbanisation: projected average rate of change of the size of the urban population over a given period of time

What is rural-urban migration?

More and more people are leaving rural areas and moving to cities

What are 4 examples push-pull factors?

Push factors (make people want to leave rural areas)

- unemployment

- crop failure / mechanisation of farming

- poor health / education services

- few facilities and services

Pull factors (attract people to the city)

- higher wages

- better weather / climate

- better health / education services

- better facilities

What is natural increase?

The difference between the number of briths and the number of deaths (more people born than dying)

Cities tend to have a more youthful population who are reproducing, this leads to even higher natural increase in urban areas

What social problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Health

- lack of doctors / clinics -> poor healthcare -> deaths

- lack of clean water / sanitation -> diseases: cholera, typhoid

- open, stagnant wastewater channels -> mosquitos: malaria

What social problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Education

- not enough schools / teachers for so many children

- large class sizes / only fews hours of schooling

- bad qualifications -> no job -> informal economy

- girls drop out for household work

What social problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Housing

- not enough affordable housing / market very competitive

- resort to living in slums / low-cost temporary housing

- lack of basic services -> unplanned

- community toilets: expensive, far away, not safe

What social problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Crime

- increased crime: rising population / inequality / poverty

- eg. robbery, drug trafficking, street gangs

- violence against women

What economic problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Transport

- most overcrowded trains - 2000 die per year

- not enough buses / metro lines

- severe delays

- air pollution as cars idle (4th polluted megacity)

What economic problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Informal economy

- no tax

- migrant / less educated -> can't find proper paid jobs

- selling food / goods on streets

What economic problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Poverty

- low-paying work

- job market very competitive

- left unemployed / informal sector

What economic problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Inequality

- informal sector / unemployment

- city segregated into poor / rich areas

- rich -> well-educated -> better jobs

What environmental problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Waste

- large city / high population

- not enough waste disposal sites / recycling facilities

- thrown into rivers / land

- plastics and other may be burnt

What environmental problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Water shortage

- water flows 2 hrs per day

- no access to clean water / far away

- less water for hygiene / cooking

What environmental problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Water pollution

- industry / slums -> no waste disposal -> pollute local rivers

- toxic waste / domestic waste enter rivers

- eg. sewage / plastics / tanning leather

What environmental problems come from rapid urbanisation? (4x2) Air pollution

- traffic / industry / housing / burning rubbish

- fossil fuels burnt: petrol -> cars in traffic

- PM can make make air hazy / dirty / lung diseases

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Squatter settlements (4x2)

Top-down

- authorities relocate residents / demolish slums

- residents may not be happy / no say

- slum rehabilitation schemes

- eg. Vision Mumbai: Dharavi

Bottom-up

- help improve houses themselves

- collaborative

- incremental strategy: making gradual improvements

NGOs

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Jobs (4x2)

- NGOs (UDAAN, Reality Tours and Travel)

- classes to provide skills / qualifications to get better jobs

- computer / English classes

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Health (4x2)

- NGOs (UDAAN, Reality Tours and Travel)

- nutritious snacks / rations

- free health / dentist checks

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Education (4x2)

- NGOs (UDAAN, Reality Tours and Travel)

- computer / English classes

- clubs / projects to empower girls

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Transport (4x2)

- Mumbai Metro Line 3

- increases connectivity to other parts of the city

- less traffic / air pollution

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Air pollution (4x2)

- more people using metro

- new city, Navi Mumbai -> fewer cars on Mumbai roads

- mangroves / forests

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Water pollution (4x2)

- improve sewage treatment works -> rivers less polluted

- banned single-use plastics -> less plastic in rivers

What are strategies to improve cities in developing countries? Waste disposal (4x2)

- employs people to collect / sort waste for recycling

- businesses / residents separate own waste

- over 80% plastic recycled

- single-use plastics banned

What are strategies to improve sustainability in developing country cities? (4x2)

- construction / expansion of sewage treatment plants and water recycling

- waste / recycling schemes

- solar panels on roofs to generate electricity

- wide tree-lined streets and pedestrianised areas

- electrified tuk-tuks and more EV charging stations

What does each stakeholder in the city management represent? (4x2)

Slum dwellers: may want to stay in the slum and improve it through self-help

Industrialists: will want areas for their work to take place and a good transport network

Property developers: will want to make profit from redeveloping the slums

Town planners: may want to solve congestion through new metro line projects

Government: will want to keep wealthy people happy and make the city attractive to encourage business and companies to locate here

NGOs: want the best for the poorest members of the city and will want a clean and safe environment

Reasons why urbanisation has happened at different times in developed, EEs, and developing countries? (3)

- developed countries found sources of energy earlier than others. Industrial revolution 1700s: Factories were built -> people migrated from rural areas to towns

- EEs are developing rapidly now, rural-urban migration happening for several decades

- some developing countries are still not very developed and migration has only recently started - many still living in rural areas

What land uses exist where in a developed city? (4)

CBD

- commercial centre: shops / offices

- tall / dense / historic buildings

- no residents

- no green space

Inner City

- high-rise apartment blocks

- run-down

- newer housing / industry

- poor environmental quality, some green space

Suburbs

- housing areas (semi-detached)

- cheaper land but close to commute into centre

- good amount of green space

Rural-urban fringe

- both urban / rural land uses

- big detached houses

- surrounded by countryside

- features industry

Characteristics of the CBD? (3x2)

- tall multi-storey buildings

- expensive land values

- high density of roads and buildings

- lack of open space / green space

- high traffic and pedestrian flows, eg. commuter rush hour

- bus / railway stations

Why is the CBD the most expensive land? (3x2)

- good transport / connections

- space is limited

- retail / businesses want to locate here / buy land here

- land prices go up when supply is low and demand is high

What was the inner city like in the past? (2x2)

- Highly industrialised--industrial revolution lead to infrastructure and factory development

- Densely populated--increase of factory workers

- Poor working conditions (slums and terraced houses)

What is inner city decline and what caused it? (1+2) (stratford broadway and carpenters estate)

When an area suffers from outward migration of people + businesses

Causes:

-deindustrialisation--factories close down/move to cheaper locations (causing unemployment and economic decline)

-Suburbanisation--(+availability of affordable housing, + quality of life, +transportation)

What is urban renewal and where has it happened? East village and westfield (1)

Redeveloping and revitalising areas with urban decay/decline

(eg installing modern facilities in old buildings/redevelopment)

Where has it happened: East village, Westfield

Characteristics of the suburbs (2x2)

-semi detached housing

-land values: medium-lower than inner city but higher than rural (inner city > suburbs > rural)

-mid population density

What is suburbinization? What caused it? (1 + 2 + 2)

Outer edge of settlements grow outwards as more services+houses increase to accommodate more people

Causes

-Inner city conditions become polluted and congested

-Improvement in transport links

-People want...

space

clean air

larger houses and gardens

better quality of life

safer areas

Rural urban fringe and characteristics (1 + 3)

-Where green open spaces meet the built up areas of towns and cities

Characteristics:

-Green belt land, lots of green space

-commuter villages, lots of green spaces

-large detached homes

-retail parks, science parks, warehouses

Why do certain land owners want to locate here? (rural urban fringe) (4x2)

Retail

-Easily accessible from the city

-lots of land for car parks

Housing

-Increasing population

-People want more space

-Detached housing

Business and science parks

-Attractive areas to encourage employees and clients to come

-Buildings can be planned carefully as area is landscaped

industrial estates

-Large land areas

-Good transport

-waste sites nearby

Why is there conflict here? (rural urban fringe) ( 4x2)

-competition for land between industrial, commercial, residential and agricultural stakeholders

-Pressure groups and farmers want to restrict urban spread

Counter urbanization and causes (1+4)

When people and jobs move from major urban areas to rural areas

Reasons

+More green space

-less congestion and traffic

-less crowded

-lower crime rate

Green field sites? Pros and cons (1+4)

A greenfield site is land that has not been developed on

Pros

+No need to clean up the site from previous land use meaning cheaper for development

+Often on edge of cities (cheaper)

+More space to plan for building and open space (not restricted by confines of a pre-existing site)

+sites on edge of the city often close to major motorways so good access

Cons

-poorer public transport links meaning people need to use more cars

-Urban sprawl increases and is unlikely to change back to countryside once its built on

-valuable agricultural land lost

-natural habitats destroyed

Brown field sites? Pros and cons (1+4)

A brownfield site is land that was previously developed on but now abandoned.

Pros

+more sustainable as existing developed land is now used

+City expansion curbed as land is within site (stops loss of countryside)

+Road, electricity and gas networks already exist (may need updating though)

+Easier to gain planning permission as councils are keen to re sue these sites

Cons

-demolition of old buildings may be needed

-land may need to be decontaminated

-Land in urban environments in high demand-->more $

-Often surrounded by rundown areas so does not appeal to wealthy people

What factors affect land use patterns? (accessibility) (3)

-city centres very accessible by public transport and centre of road networks (transport)

-Office and commercial buildings need to be accessible for employees

-some businesses locate on edge, near main motorways, away from inner city congestion

What factors affect land use patterns? (land value) (3)

- city centre has highest prices, commercial land use most likely are able to pay

-Houses bigger the further from city centres as land value decreases

What factors affect land use patterns? Locational needs of the urban activity (3)

- recreational activities likely to be in the outer edge of cities as they need more space eg. golf courses, stables

- industry likely to be near main motorways and waste disposal sites

- families likely to live in suburbs where bigger houses are found

What problems do developed country cities face? Food (2)

- London has a complex food supply chain which can be disrupted due to global events

- data from a recent survey of Londoners show that 1/6 (17%) children experience food insecurity, along with 1/5 adults (1.5 million)

What problems do developed country cities face? Energy use and transport (2+2)

- most of London's energy comes from gas

- every household spends average £1175 on gas and electricity bills every year

- 350,000 London households are considered to be fuel poor - means that they can't afford to keep their homes warm due to a combination of low incomes and high energy cities

- London's population is growing which is stressing the transport network

- roads congested so reduces reliability of buses and increses commuting times

- trains overcrowded, hundreds of injuries every year

What problems do developed country cities face? Resource consumption and waste disposal (2+2)

- London has a concentrated resource consumption due to its size and wealth

- its ecological footprint is 6.6 global hectares per person, higher than the UK average and global average (2.8 gha)

- only 33% of London's collected waste is currently recycled - the lowest if any region in the UK (average 43%)

- average, 50% of London's population live in flats which often have a lack of accessible and sufficient storage space for recycling

- as of 2018, the capacity of landfills accepting London's waste in expected to run out by 2026 and London's waste bill was also in excess of £2 billion per year, rising

What is segregation in cities and why does it happen? (1+2)

Social segregation refers to the separation of social classes in a city. This may exist for ethnic groups, social classes and gender groups.

Causes:

- inner city has a wide divide of the wealthiest and the poorest of the city due to highly skilled workers (bankers, lawyers) moving to city for jobs, as well as low-paid migrants looking for jobs in service sector eg. Chelsea, Newham

- immigrants often congregate in similar areas within a city due to linguistic, religious or cultural reasons

What solutions are there for HIC cities? Waste disposal and Food (2+2)

Waste:

- by 2026, no biodegradable or recyclable waste will be sent to landfill

- single use plastic banned

- educate to reduce food waste. Goal to cut food waste by 50% by 2030

Food:

- over 300 food banks in London

- government has extended free meals in London state primary schools for 2024-25

What solutions are there for HIC cities? Education, Employment, Health (3x2)

Education:

- financial support from governments for 16-19 yr olds

- foundations like Springboard provide bursaries for students who otherwise wouldn't be able to attend leading schools

Employment:

- schemes for immigrants to learn English and get jobs

- flexi work mode offered so people can work from home, making jobs more accessible

Health:

- working with schools to encourage school-based health and wellbeing programs

- free family planning clinics for contraceptive and sexual health

What solutions are there for HIC cities? Energy and Transport (2+2)

Energy:

- increase London's solar powered energy capacity

- government schemes: e.g. warm home discount (£150 one-off payment)

Transport:

- congestion charge to deter driving in highly congested areas in central London

- bikeshare companies like LimeBikes and government initiatives like 'cycle to work' scheme to incentivise cycling over driving

What are strategies to improve sustainability in developed country cities? (4x2)

- reduce food waste

- banning single use plastic

- recycling schemes

- bikesharing

- increase solar capacity

- legislating to protect green spaces

- ULEZ charge (ultra-low emission charge)

What stakeholders exist in city management? (4)

- residents

- property developers

- government (local and national)

- businesses

- NGOs