To what extent did key personalities of Henry VI`s reign affect the governance of England from 1449 to 1461?

Summarise the personality of Henry VI?

- Deeply pious

- politically and militarily inept

- weak willed, driven by kindness

- focused on modesty

What were the early years of Henry VI`s reign dominated by, and why was this legacy complicated?

Governed by a minority, that seems to have ended in 1437.

This was complicated because this disallowed for definitive and unified governance over the two countries, and therefore caused two different sets of political interests to fester in each realm.

Minority rules enable over-mighty subjects, who grow accustomed to the infantilisation of the monarch, making it harder for Henry VI to define his position within history as a ruler, because there is a lack of definitive authority.

Aside from his infancy, what was difficult about having to govern France?

Dauphin was empowering himself, with French military morale being reinvigorated by Joan of Arc. Burgundian support for the English cause by 1435 was virtually non-existent, because they felt a conviction to support the French (especially after papal confirmation that they saw Charles VII as the legitimate heir)

What factor perhaps meant Henry VI was scrutinised so heavily?

His father had asserted his control from a young age, engaging in successful military endeavours domestically as a teenager, and as King a conquest of France and demonstration of political aptitude.

The argument for religious devotion being Henry VI`s saving grace is falsified by his father1s ability to balance matters of state with upholding his spiritual devotion.

Why would Henry VI`s dress code make the nation increasingly apprehensive?

He dressed really modestly, and this made people worry whether he`d be able to reinforce the glory of the English crown. Sumptuous clothing is often perceived as a sign of wealth, status and power both domestically and in relation to foreign relations.

Henry VI`s religious tendencies?

He was heavily religious, devoting large periods of time to faith. He had various periods of mental incapacitation that disallowed him to rule effectively. E.g. catatonic state for 18 months. These were often distracted as signs of religious visions and the result of his extreme piety.

especially asserted by John Blackman (close associate and contemporary of the King, and therefore his writings tend to to possess a more pro-Lancastrian undertone.

What religious institutions did Henry VI found?

Eton (1440) and Kings College Cambridge (1441)

How might the fact that most accounts from Medieval England are written by religious men impact what they argue?

Religious perspective = glorification of faith.

Less likely to fixate on temporal governance, meaning limited understanding of politics is offered.

Character is defined by spiritual piety.

What might many argue was the straw that broke the camel`s back in the case of Henry VI`s mental health?

Many would argue that the loss of Normandy after thirty years of rule, and the loss of Gascony after 4 centuries would have emasculated and infantilised the King, breaking his spirit and perhaps leading to the questioning of his competencies.

Henry VI`s religious cult?

Post murder in the Tower of London in 1471, people began to glorify him, saying when they prayed to him miracles occurred. The Tudors even campaigned to have the King canonise him. Edward IV wanted to supress such claims.

buried in St George`s chapel becoming a shrine, with Henry VIII hoping to capitalise on it and move the tomb to Westminster Abbey.

500 pilgrimage souvenirs were found in London. There are a number of late 15th century and early 16th century accounts of cures.

What other interpretations of Henry`s life were there beyond religious?

Watts argues Henry was exceptionally ineffective and inane, to be considered more a vacuum than a personality. Henry`s helplessness provided the leading nobility with opportunity to assume more power than perhaps would be warranted. Although there is a level of respect for the hereditary monarchy, it recognises how it is impossible to have a functioning medieval government without a competent monarch.

What reasons might compensate for Henry`s incompetence?

- successful father presents unusually jhigh levels of military success against France and political authority at home. The contrast increased the impression of inadequacy of Henry VI.

- Treaty of Troyes left Henry with a complex legacy, monarch of two nations. Many French supported the Dauphin over Henry VI.

- Henry inherited a severely dilapidated nation, which was financially heavily disadvantaged due to the costs of the French conquests.

- Starting one`s reign with minority rule disallows the monarch to assert their control and prove their dominance. Often, they are rendered useless by the suffocatingly minute control over government by over mighty subjects, a level of control they fail to secede.

Give a summary of why there was initially hostility towards Margaret of Anjou.

- prejudiced due to French ancestry

- gender made them perceive her tempraments as peculiar

- No dowry was provided (no financial benefit) and seen as a morganatic marriage to an extent (daughter of a reputed by poor Duke)

- England was to surrender Maine, an area fought for valliantly and profitable. It was only made public once peace was affirmed.

Treaty of Tours 1444

The Truce of Tours (1444) provided for a marriage between Henry VI and the niece of Queen Mary of France; extensions of the truce gave Charles time to strengthen his military resources

Why was Margaret of Anjou perhaps slightly more outspoken as compared to what the English court expected?

Met with formidable female role models.

YOLANDE OF ARAGON - instrumental in aiding Charles VII in his years of disinheritance, and in in supporting his fight for power.

ISABELLA, DUCHESS OF LORRAINE - mother who was Duchess of Anjou suo jure, and led court of Naples during her husband`s imprisonment. Demonstrated female power independent of male influence.

How is Margaret conventionally seen, and why might that be?

English court had no precedent for outspoken and politicised women, so such a prospect scared them. Although she might be interpreted as a vicious "she-wolf", in actuality revisionist history treats her as an assertive female with a maternal instinct to protect the interests of her child, as opposed to a power-hungry lady.

Misogyny and xenophobia at court, Shakespeare and Yorkist chroniclers after 1461 reinforce a vilification of the Queen within History.

Why was Margaret of Anjou in a precarious position?

As a foreign Queen, she was split between being an ambassador for her native nation, whilst also promoting the interests of her husband and protecting her state.

Describe English political events up until the birth of Prince Edward in October 1453.

1447: Richard, Duke of York is removed as commander of France

1448: Edmund Beaufort made duke of Somerset

1440 - 52: series of French military victories over the English lead to the loss of French territory in Normandy (held for 30 yrs) and Gascony (held for four centuries)

1453: complete mental deterioration of Henry`s mental state, leading to him entering a catatonic state

Why would the removal of the Duke of York from his position damage Henry VI`s position?

The Duke of York was a skilled military leader, heavily seasoned in the complexities of the French conquest and therefore was heavily qualified for the role. This removal jeopardised the already precarious status of French gains, and could potentially be argued as a catalyst for the events of 1453.

Arguably, this is a demonstration of Margaret`s soft political power, using her husband as a means to meet a ends.

This would have been embarrassing to the Duke, thereby fuelling a desire to assert his own claim upon the throne. Ostracises the heir apparent

Why would bestowing a dukedom upon Beaufort damage Henry VI`s position?

This raises Beaufort`s position at court, giving him more money and status with which he can further his own plans, ie furthering the interests of the peace faction.

This later may be interpreted as ill-thought through decisions on the King`s behalf, inevitably allowing for fingers to be pointed at the King.

Outline the English defeats in France, and how might these damage Henry VI`s position?

This emasculates Henry VI, not only undermining his military authority (a benchmark for all good medevial Kings) but also his commitment to securing English interests in France. The loss of these territories proffered national embarassment, causing people to become disillusioned with the King`s government and their competencies. The fact that the war had severely damaged English trade and human resources, it would have paved the way for disaffection.

This also weakens his position against the copious accolades of rival claimants like York, who due to proven ability, might be able to gain support.

What is argued as the cause for Henry VI`s mental deterioration?

The loss of France -

First Battle of St Albans - 1455

York and the Nevilles took up arms against Henry VI, Somerset and the Percies. Somerset was killed, with the battle being a resounding victor for the Yorkists.

They captured the King, before returning him to London, and by 25th May, a ceremony at St Pauls was held, where the Duke placed the crown on the King`s head and Yorkists issued oaths of loyalty to the King.

How did the Battle of St Albans and the subsequent events damage Henry VI`s position?

The death of Somerset mimicked the judicial murder of Suffolk. This undermined monarchical authority, demonstrating that those even within the upper echelons of society didn`t deem the King a good judge of character, a key aspect of his role. Magnates were meant to reinforce the King`s sovereignty, not damage it.

Although the peace ceremony presents as a dedication to uphold the King`s position, in actuality it serves as a demonstration of York`s power (through the placement of the drown) and the subsequent lack of power for the King.

Blatant infantilisation of the monarch.

How did the Earl of Warwick`s being made Captain of Calais damage Henry VI`s position?

significant military base

What was Loveday, and why did this strengthen public perception of the monarchy?

procession of peace - HoL & HoY arm in arm - FAILURE

1458 - York and the Queen arm in arm, and earl of Salisbury with the new duke of Somerset

This presented the institution as forgiving, and willing to work towards the better good of the nation. This showed a prioritisation of the common good over personal/political feuds. This put to rest fears surrounding political stability.

What the 1459 Parliament of Devils, and how did this damage Henry VI`s position?

After York retreated to Ireland, the Parliament held in Coventry damning the Duke of York and Earls of Salisbury and Warwick to death, disinheriting all their heirs too.

This would further disillusion those within the country who supported York and were already displeased with the action being taken by the government.

How has the Parliament of Devils been interpreted by historians and contemporaries alike?

Many people attribute the severity of the judgments made to have been influenced by Margaret as an act of personal revenge against her enemies. Although this might be plausible, this is unlikely because of the extent of patriarchal control over governance in mid 15th century English politics, and it was a decision with widespread support.

Give a brief summary of events between Edward`s invasion of June 1460 until the Battle of Towton.

- Edward invades England, successfully defeating Lancastrian forces marshalled by the Queen and Prince Edward at the battle of Northampton (10 July). They professed loyalty to the King, only wishing to rid him of evil councillors.

Soon after in September, York began to claim the throne for himself. Whilst negotiations between the DUke and Parliament ensued, Margaret of Anjou and Prince Edward regrouped with their forces in Yorkshire planning their next assault.

1460 ACT OF ACCORD: DISINHERITED PRINCE EDWARD, MAKING DUKE OF YORK THE HEIR, AND HIS HEIRS THE KINGS OF ENGLAND.

30 December - Duke of York is killed at Sandal Castle, with his head being hoisted on the walls of York wearing a paper crown.

29th March - Battle of Towton, decisive Yorkist victory with the Lancastrian royal family fleeing to Scotland.

Why would being engulfed by a catatonic state damage Henry VI`s position?

A King must be in his senses to dish out sound political judgement and rule effectively. Therefore the absence of such a figure would weaken England`s position as it did France`s under Charles VI`s reign. This also allows for alternative claimants like the Duke of York to be raised in the public conscience, making it more plausible for a potential shift in power dynamics.

Also, amidst questions around paternity, his inability to respond and confirm this means that the security of Prince Edward`s claim is weak.

In October 1453, an heir was born. Why did this strengthen Henry VI`s position?

Proves that the country will have a stable succession, therefore preventing a civil war/ quelling questions surrounding this

How did the absence of an heir in the years 1444-52 damage Henry VI`s position?

This questioned the security of the Lancastrian monarchy, only further emboldening and strengthening the reputation and position of the Duke of York, who had an heir from 1442.

Who was the Duke of Suffolk?

William de la Pole. He`d been an active solider under Henry V during the Hundred Years War, rising to political prominence in the 1440s.

Why was the Duke of Suffolk so unpopular?

- Negotiated truce at Tours in 1444 (unpatriotic agreement)

- 1449: key advocate for attack on Fougeres, triggering French retaliatory attacks resulting in massive English defeats in Normandy. Loss of Normandy meant a number of noble families lost valuable lands (including York), beyond the general national dissatisfaction at failed administration.

- Accused of financial mismanagement of taxes acquired for war. By 1450, the crown owed £370K, with £38K being owed to Richard, Duke of York. Crown failure to repay the Duke increased tensions, especially when he had to sell of manors and family jewels (i.e. collar adorned with white roses - regarded most valuable after the Crown Jewels)

- regarded as manipulative, resulting in him being recipient of large patronages.

- 1449-50: accused of orchestrating marriage with Somerset family, creating an extremely strong claim to the throne, rivalling that of York

How did Suffolk`s behaviour damage the King`s reputation?

He was seen to have immersed himself in unsound council, leading to national failures at the expense of English human and economic resources.

Contemporaries would have understood this as a clear demonstration of "under-mighty monarch" and "over-mighty subject". Although official Parliament records vilify Suffolk, it is undoubted that Henry fell prey to similar ciriticisms.

How did Suffolk die?

Suffolk is scapegoated for French failures, and imprisoned in the tower post heated Parliament in 1450. Henry VI pardoned his favourite, banishing him instead for five years.

On his way to banishment, privateers took him prison, held a mock trial and murdered him.

Why was Suffolk`s death so instrumental?

It reflected the lack of trust people had in the King to effectively and competently govern the nation, being a judge with sound verdicts.

JUDICIAL MURDER - ASSUMING AUTHORITY THAT CAN ONLY BE BESTOWED BY A MONARCH.

Foreshadows the dissent of Cade`s rebellion, reflecting a disillusionment with the Lancastrian regime.