Training

Training

Planned and systematic activity designed to facilitate learning of knowledge, skills, or attitudes that result in improved performance in another environment. Overall goal of most training is learning

Short-term, task oriented, and targeted on achieving a change in behavior via knowledge, skills, and attitude change and usually job related

Education

lifetime investment that’s knowledge-based. tend to be initiated by an individual in the area of their interest

Development

long term investment in employees’ personal growth and positive organization change

The gap concept

we need to develop programs to fill the gap between current and expected outcome.

• Deficiency of knowledge: don't know what to do

• Deficiency of execution: I know what I want to do, but not how to do it

• Deficiency of practice: not given opportunity to practice what learned

Instructional Systems Design

 formal set of approaches for developing a training system from learning theory. It provides procedures for developing training materials based on a comprehensive training needs analysis 

• It focuses on developing effective performance, learning required skills, and identifying what the trainee must do to learn that skill

• ADDIE model is most popular

• Successive Approximation Model (SAM) is shorter model of the ADDIE model. Like a mini prototype

ADDIE

Analysis: what’s the problem? What’s the learning goal? Target audience? Training needs analysis? Ex: needs analysis, interviews, objectives

Design: Learning objectives? Stakeholder alignment? Mapping of evaluation methods? Outline? Ex: Blueprint, storyboard

Development: Instruction strategies? Communication strategy? Producing learning product. Determine delivery method. Ex: slides, workbook, facilitator guide

Implementation: training delivery and participation, execution. Ex: Announcement, facilitate

Evaluation: in EACH step, continuous learning, points of improvement- it’s in every element so technically shouldn’t be last. Ex: feedback survey, assessment data

Balanced Scorecard

• company’s strategic objectives into a coherent set of performance measures (Customer -time/quality/service, internal business process- influences customer satisfaction, innovation/learning- operating efficiency, employee satisfaction, continuous improvement, and financial- profitability, growth)

• See where value is added in organization, helps with strategic initiative objectives

Training Needs Analysis

process where an organization’s workplace learning needs are identified and articulated

• Should result in learning objectives

• Assessment or analysis

• Should be an intervention to show the organization cares

• Diagnostic needs (what are we doing well), analytical needs (what can we do better), and compliance needs (not on quiz)

• First step in instructional design process:

  • Should be properly conducted to reap benefits of training

• SMEs, incumbents, and other stakeholders should participate in this. 

• Before choosing a training method, it’s important to decide 

  • What type of training is necessary

  • The appropriateness of training

  • Performance deficiencies due to lack of knowledge, skills, and attitude

  • Key tasks that need emphasis

• Strong link between Training Needs Analysis comprehensiveness and organizational effectiveness (r = .43). Yet it’s often overlooked and underfunded

Org, person, and task analysis

Organization Analysis

WHERE direction, manager support, resources, climate, identify future needs

• Aka strategic analysis

• Determine appropriateness of training

• Available resources like money, time, people, support

• Gather data and support for training from managers and employees

Person Analysis

WHO characteristics, input, consequences, feedback, gaps in learner

• If deficiencies are because of lack of knowledge, skills, or behavior (training issue) or from a motivational or work design problem

• Helps to know if employees are trainable and have basic skills/abilities/self-efficacy and transfer to workplace

• Are you targeting the right people

• Identify who needs training and what kind they need

  • Gap analysis : between actual and expected

  • Employee readiness for training

Task Analysis

WHAT, KSAs, working conditions, what people are doing and what they should be doing

• Aka Operations analysis

• Identify important tasks, knowledge, skills, and behaviors that need to be emphasized in training for employees to successfully complete tasks

• Identify what actually doing and they should be doing

• Team Task Analysis: identify coordination patterns and specify the teamwork-oriented learning objectives

• Cognitive Task Analysis: useful when jobs are knowledge based and there’s a need to unpack the cognitive requirements

  • Knowledge elicitation method like verbal protocols, structured interviews, observations

• Results in description of tasks and KSAOs required

• Done after organization supports training program

Learning objectives

• the purpose and expected outcomes of training

  • A statement of what the trainee will be able to do or exhibit upon successfully completing the training

  • Helps to identify the types of training outcomes that should be measured

  • Learning objectives must be specific, observable, and measurable

  • Has 3 components: what’s expected stated with an action verb (performance or outcome), quality or level of acceptable performance (criterion), and conditions which learner is expected to perform (conditions.)

• Domains are Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor

What is needed for effective training?

Learning and transfer

Conditions for Learning

• Active practice: cone of experience; active learning pyramid

• Overlearning (learning past mastery and it’s second nature)

• Massed vs spaced practice sessions. Massed can be better if not sequenced events, short amount of time (practicality), time to performance is short. Distribution of practice effect (d= .45 - .96)

• Whole vs part learning

• Knowledge of results or feedback

• Task sequencing (engage with the easiest task first to build on self-efficacy)

Learning Styles is a …

myth. people differ in the type of instruction they prefer

Meshing hypothesis

meshing preference with presentation style

Learning Management Systems (LMs)

• Used to automate the administration, development, and delivery of training programs

• Like a learning portal 

• Propriertary, open-source, cloud-based LMS

• Benefits: reduce costs, increase access, reduce time to completion, generate easy to retrieve data (talent gaps), easily linked to other HR systems

Adult Learning: aka androgongy

• Adults have a need to know why they’re learning about something

• Have a need to be self-directed

• Bring more work-related experiences into learning situations

• Enter into a learning experience with a problem-centered approach to learning

• Extrinsically and intrinsically motivated

• Learn best in cooperative climates that encourage risk-taking and experimentation

Reinforcement Theory

• People are motivated to perform or avoid certain behaviors because of past outcomes that have resulted from those behaviors

  • Positive reinforcement: adding something wanted

  • Negative reinforcement: adding something bad

  • Punishment/extinction: remove desirable outcomes or withdrawing privilege so they stop bad behavior

• Intrinsic vs extrinsic rewards

  • Schedule or pattern of reinforcement is critical to learning

  • Intrinsic rewards are stronger (peer recognition, need for achievement)

• Trainer needs ot identify outcomes trainees find most positive or negative

Social Learning Theory

• People learn by observing others (models) who they believe are credible and knowledgeable

  • Models’ behavior or skill that’s rewarded is adopted by observer

• Learning new skills or behaviors comes from

  • Experiencing (either directly or observation) the consequences of using behavior or skills

• Learning is influenced by person’s self-efficacy (judgement about whether they feel they can successfully learn knowledge and skills)

• Self-efficacy is determinant of readiness to learn

  • It can be increased through verbal persuasion, logical verification, modeling, past accomplishments

Goal Orientation Theory

• Goals held by trainee in learning situation. 

• Master/Learning Goal Orientation: increase ability or competence in a task. Learners with high learning goal orientation generally surpass performance orientation. Direct greater attention to task, learn for sake of learning

• Performance Goal Orientation: focus on task performance and how they compare to others. Direct more attention to performing well, devote less effort to learning, competitive

• Mastery is better

Need Theories

• Explain value person places on certain outcomes. What motivates you?

• Suggest that to motivate learning,

  • Trainers should identify trainees’ needs and communicate how training content relates to fulfilling those needs

• If basic needs of trainees are not met, unlikely to be motivated to learn

Expectancy Theory

learning is better when people believe they can do it, they value they outcomes, the outcomes are tied to performance

• Behavior based on 

  • Expectancy: belief in own ability

  • Valence: rewards are actually valued

  • Instrumentality: behavior is associated with outcome

Information Processing Theory

• Emphasize internal processes when content is learned and retained

• Info taken in by learner undergoes several transformations in the brain

• Highlights how external events influence learning

• Trainers help by improving their attention by having effective learning objectives to help trainees set up expectations, and help with perceptual features of content

Fishbone Diagram

a visual tool used in root cause analysis to identify, sort, and display all potential causes of a specific problem

Enhance Motivation to Learn

• Communicate to trainees the purpose of the course, objectives, prerequisites, and who else will be attending. 

• Assign pre-work to ensure trainees come to the program with a sense of focus and a basic understanding of training content. 

  • Like assigning readings or questions like “Bring 3 challenges you currently have that you want addressed”

• Managers should emphasize attendance/application importance, encourage attendance, and set expectations for learning

  • Highest level of support is when managers are the trainers

Expectancy Theory

 The more effort you put in will lead to higher levels of learning and valued outcomes. EXPECTANCY, INSTRUMENTALITY, VALENCE. Help learners through this theory by eliminating obstacles and making sure that the outcomes they want (like high grades) are achievable and they’re supported

• learning is better when people believe they can do it, they value the outcomes, the outcomes are tied to performance

• Behavior based on 

  • Expectancy: belief in own ability

  • Valence: rewards are actually valued

  • Instrumentality: behavior is associated with outcome

Social Learning Theory

 idea that social interactions lead to higher levels of self-efficacy. 

• People learn by observing others (models) who they believe are credible and knowledgeable. Models’ behavior or skill that’s rewarded is adopted by observer (VICARIOUS LEARNING)

• Learning new skills or behaviors comes from experiencing (either directly or observation) the consequences of using behavior or skills

• Learning is influenced by person’s self-efficacy (judgement about whether they feel they can successfully learn knowledge and skills). self-efficacy is determinant of readiness to learn

• AGENCY: the human capacity to exert influence over one’s own functioning and the course of events through one's actions.

Goal Setting theory

Behavior is because of a person’s conscious goals/intentions. Goals influence behavior by directing energy and attention, sustaining effort over time, and motivating the person to develop strategies. Goals lead to high performance only if people are committed to the goal and are less likely to commit if they believe it’s too difficult. IDEA THAT IF YOU SET SPECIFIC, CHALLENGING GOALS, YOU’LL BE MORE COMMITTED

• GOAL ORIENTATION: goals held by trainee in a learning situation. Can include LEARNING/MASTERY ORIENTATION PERFORMANCE ORIENTATION

• GOAL LEVEL: the standard of proficiency or the specific level of performance being aimed for. It is often synonymous with goal difficulty, a linear relationship between goal difficulty and performance: higher goals lead to higher performance, provided the person has the ability to reach them. high goals lead people to exert more effort, persist longer, and focus their attention more sharply than "do your best" goals or easy goals.

• GOAL COMMITMENT: degree to which an individual is attached to the goal, considers it significant, and is determined to reach it even in the face of obstacles. Affected by self-efficacy

• Help learners through this theory by setting goals with supervisor prior to learning and provide a MASTERY goal orientation

Performance Orientation

focus on performance compared to others, success is high performance relative to others, value high ability more than learning, error and mistakes cause anxiety and avoid them. Direct attention to performing well and less on learning)

Learning/Mastery Orientation

increase ability or competence in a task, success is showing improvement. Direct attention to task. Greater effort to learn and use more complex learning strategies. Create this by setting goals around learning and experimenting rather than trained task-performance. Deemphasize competition) or

Self-Determination Theory

theory that we act the way we do because of intrinsic and extrinsic (controlled) motivation. Idea that for a person to experience high-quality (intrinsic) motivation and mental well-being, three universal psychological needs must be satisfied: Autonomy, Competence, Relatedness

Autonomy

The need to feel in control of one’s own behaviors and goals. It is the feeling that "I am the author of my actions" rather than being a pawn moved by others. In the workplace, this means having a say in how tasks are completed.

Competence

The need to gain mastery of tasks and learn different skills. It is the feeling of being effective and capable. When a task is at the right level of challenge, it enhances the sense of competence.

Relatedness

The need to feel a sense of belonging and attachment to other people. In an organization, this is the feeling that you are supported by your team and that your work matters to the community.

Situated Cognition

people’s knowledge is embedded in context of where learning takes place.

Situated Learning

part of adult learning where, WHERE A PARTICULAR LEARNING OR ACTIVITY TAKES PLACES IS CRUCIAL FOR LEARNING OUTCOMES

Theory of psychological engagement

for training to be effective, a learner must be psychologically present—investing their physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into the learning experience.

Active Learning (Training)

approach that assigns the trainee an active role in the learning. Includes BOTH A COGNITIVE (learner mentally rehearse to restore for long term memory) AND BEHAVIORAL ACTIVITY

• Traditionally, trainees are perceived as passive, but active learning is more popular with more tech advancements and learners taking proactive role in learning

• Formal Training:Trainers encourage exploration and experimentation. 

  • Error management training is part of exploration where error are a natural part of training process and useful for learning/mastery orientation. Encourage experimentation

• Informal Learning: Job demand-control model (reduce strain & improves O-J Learning)

  • Active Learning Hypothesis: high job demands and high job control support for on-demand learning. No control and no support but high demands means higher strain and less learning

  • When applicable, it leads to better transfer outcomes like adaptive transfer (the process of modifying prior knowledge or skills to fit new, unfamiliar contexts, rather than just directly reapplying them)

Attribute-Treatment Interactions

one size doesn’t fit all when it comes to training. Relationship between people’s differences and training effectiveness is different across different strategies/methods

Attribute

measurable person characteristics that prepares for goal achievement. Broad and STABLE features of trainees. Different than learning styles which are preferences.

What is the finding between general cognitive ability and training structure?

General cognitive ability: when cognitive ability is high, need LESS structure. there is an interaction between training structure and general cognitive ability. One of the most robust findings

Fluid intelligence

solve novel problems, think abstractly, peak in young adulthood and declines after

Older trainees need task sequence

Crystalized Intelligence

accumulated knowledge, facts, and skills acquired through life experience and education. Increase with age

Treatments

training design features and contextual characteristics of the training environment (e.g., reward system, transfer climate, feedback, rewards, instruction strategy, training design features)

• Treatment and situations either magnify or diminish certain individual difference effects

• Unless treatment is clearly the best for everyone, it should be differentiated (when practical)

Person-Environment Fit

 best outcomes when max fit between trainees and environment (content, delivery, context)

Complementary fit

Environment compensates individual weakness or provides something to the training environment that wouldn’t have otherwise had. An individual fills a gap in the environment by providing skills or abilities that the team/organization currently lacks. Like an instructional designer hiring an expert who’s a good model to demonstrate something.

Supplementary Fit

something the trainee already possesses. when an individual shares similar characteristics (values, personality, skills) with others in an environment, essentially "fitting in". Like encouraging the trainees to explore their high in openness.: A new hire shares the same ethical values as the rest of the company culture.

 STRATEGY TO MAXIMIZE LEARNING

Error encouragement. Encouraged especially in fields like the medical field where there’s life and death

how attributes (characteristics) and treatments interact to affect learning outcomes

• Trainee characteristics affect intervening mechanisms (each person’s processing capacity, focus, effort), and intervening mechanisms affect learning outcomes (knowledge, skill, self-efficacy)

• Treatments (Design features like task complexity and goals of training, situational/environment features) affect (moderate) the strength of the learning outcomes

Universal Design of Learning

Research-based principles to guide program design that are effective for ALL learners

• Most effective for combining learning methods. Use adaptive, blended, inclusive approaches. Blended learning is recommended because of individual differences

• Reduces barriers to learning

• Gives options and choices to learners

• Proactive and inclusive

• This is important because: learner variability and diversity, increases learner engagement, and gives learners ownership of their learning

• EQUITY IS THE MAIN PURPOSE

Characteristics of well-designed training

• Convey Information: trainees understand the objectives, purpose, and intended outcomes. They receive meaningful content (i.e., examples, exercises, and assignments that are relevant to the job)

• Demonstration: demonstrate desired behaviors, cognitions, and attitudes through learning aids (like videos) to help them learn, organize, and recall training content

• Practice: Opportunity to practice KSs in a relatively structured, safe, and supportive environment

• Feedback: trainees receive feedback on learning from trainers, observers, peers, or the task itself. Learning is solidified in practice and feedback

Training Effectiveness

The benefits that the organization and the trainees receive from the training

Training Outcomes

Output measures or criteria that’s used to evaluate training programs

Training Evaluation

process of collecting the outcomes needed to determine if training was effective

Assessment FOR learning

An ongoing process used during instruction to provide feedback, guide teaching, and improve student learning

Formative

Assessment OF learning

(summative) occurs at the end of a unit to measure, grade, and certify student achievement against standards

Alpha Change

true change. Changes in responses accurately reflects changes in reality. Change in the level in the measure

Beta Change

changes in responses result from a subjective recalibration of the measurement scale (aka instrument bias). Change in the calibration of measure

• Trainees have recalibrated their own interpretation of the likert scale. They initially thought they were smart but realized how much they don’t know. Has nothing to do with changing the construct in their head. It has to do with training exposure and realized their actual skill level

GAMMA CHANGE

• changes in responses results from a reconceptualization of the variable (construct validity issue). New meaning of construct like new meaning of peer support, new vocab words, different dimensions. Change in the meaning of the construct

  • This is why it’s important to keep dimensions at a facet level, not a global level (because when they learn new concepts, not confused)

Mental Model

the "internal map" a person uses to understand how concepts relate to each other. important when team needs to know how to approach a certain task

Kirkpatrick’s Framework of Evaluation

further away from the training program, the more precise the data is. The levels mean the proximity to the training interventions and precision of data. That’s why reactions is Level 1 and closest to the training intervention

• Level 1: Reactions.

  • Immediate. What did you like about it? Do you plan to use it? Utility, Affective and Purpose/use reactions

• Level 2: Learning - Cognitive, Behavioral/Skill, Affective Outcomes

  • Immediate (depending on collection). In training room right after program. Affective outcomes (self-efficacy, more motivational aspects)

• Level 3: Transfer Behavior/Skill Outcomes

  • Back at work, results may not always show good behavior of employees

• Level 4: Results

  • Data

• Level 5: Return on Investment

  • Financial Impact

Net Promoter Score

who is a promoter and a detractor. Mechanism to know what sources of data to pay attention to and used for marketing

Utility Analysis

assessing the dollar value of training based on estimates of:

• The difference in job performance (etc) between trained and untrained employees

• Number of individuals trained

• Length of time training is expected to influence performance

• Variability in job performance of the untrained employees

• Use when you can’t get ROI directly but to communicate financial impact

• It tends to be inflated and believability is low, so in process gain as much buy-in as possible

Training Validity

extent to which training programs enhance trainees’ knowledge and skills. Did the trainees master what they were supposed to learn?

Transfer validity

extent training lead to improvements in job performance? Are the trainees able to do better on the job as a result of training?

Intraorganizational Validity

Extent training program works for other workers in the same company. Does the training work across groups of people in other organizations?

Interorganizational Validity

extent to which training program works in other organizations. Does the training work for people in other organizations?

Internal referencing strategy

• We create 2 comparison groups (ask about what you trained and nothing about what you trained - bogus items)

  • This is a clever way to create a "control group" within the same person. How it works: You give a pre-test and post-test that includes two types of items:

1. Trained Items: Content actually covered in your 4 modules (e.g., "The 3 Ds of Delegation").

2. Untrained (Bogus) Items: Content that sounds professional and relevant but was not in your curriculum (e.g., "The 5-Step Synergy Protocol").

3. The Logic: If the managers’ scores go up on everything, they probably just got better at taking tests or were influenced by outside factors. If their scores only go up on the Trained Items, you have proof that your specific modules caused the change.

Hawthorne Effect

the idea that people improve simply because the organization is paying attention to them.

Transfer of Training

trainees effectively and continually applying what they learned (KSs) in training on their jobs. a continuous process, not just an outcome

Scrap learning

learning acquire through training that isn’t retained or transferred. Learning that didn’t end up getting used. Wasted time or wasted dollars and often expressed as a percentage.

• Typical is 45%. Sometimes even 80% or more. Idea that it’s inevitable in organizations because we can’t tailor training to each individual

• Some causes: training at wrong time, too much content, lack of follow up, training isn’t what’s needed, AVOID by investing time in program design, interactive learning methods, action planning (set expectation before/during/after training)

Forms of Transfer

Horizontal and Vertical

Horizontal Transfer

focuses on the individual taking a skill and applying it to similar situations at the same level of complexity.

highly sensitive to the environment. Even if a manager learns the skill, a "top-down" lack of support from senior leadership can kill the transfer.

Primary Objective: To ensure the person can do their specific job better across different but similar contexts.

Vertical Transfer

This is a "bottom-up" effect where individual learning scales up to benefit the entire team or organization.

Strategic Outcome: It explains the why behind training—how one person’s growth moves the needle for the entire organization's mission.

Transfer of Training Theories

Identical Elements, Stimulus Generalization, Cognitive Theory

Identical Elements

Training environment is identical to work environment (e.g. fire drills). Training should focus on closed skills (a motor skill performed in a stable, predictable environment where the performer dictates the pace and timing, allowing for pre-planned movements), work environment features are predictable and stable. NEAR transfer

Stimulus Generalization

general principles are applicable to many different work situations. Training should focus on open skills (movements performed in dynamic, unpredictable, and constantly changing environments) and the work environment is unpredictable and highly variable. FAR transfer where you apply training to different context. Ex: training interpersonal skills

Cognitive Theory

meaningful material and coding schemes enhance storage and recall of training content. All types of training and environments. NEAR and FAR transfer

Near Transfer

Applying learned skills or concepts to a context that is very similar or tightly related to the original learning environment.

Far Transfer

Applying learned skills or principles to a context or domain that is very different and loosely related to the original training

Skill Decay

Loss or decay of training or acquired KSs after periods of nonuse. Not simply a matter of nonuse. More of a matter of interference where there are other things that are taking priority and interfere with the learning and are becoming obsolete. Likely a function of training and task factors

Desirable difficulties in training

when overall transfer increases but initial skill acquisition is inhibited

Retrieval process and retention and transfer go up, speed of acquisition goes down

Transfer Interventions

Pretraining

• Improve self-efficacy: persuasion, emphasize learning outcomes

• improve transfer climate: communicate transfer value, remove inhibitors, promote a learning organization

• Improve motivation: goal setting, info review, managerial support

During Training

• Improve acquisition and retention: Context-dependent learning, Provide many examples, Overlearning and desirable difficulties

• Improve adaptive expertise: discover based learning: inquiry based, error-based learning, develop meta-cognitive skills

• Improve transfer intentions: goal setting, improve training reactions, leaverage training cohort, positive training climate, self-management skills

Posttraining

• Improve transfer climate: work environment, positive task cues, positive reinforcement

• Improve retention: similarity of conditions means context dependent learning, job aids, guided reflection, micro-refresher training

• improve Vertical Transfer: deliver training at the team level when members have critical roles

Metacognition

thinking about your own thinking so you can plan, monitor, and evaluate your learning process

Performance Appraisal

using a standardized rating form to assess employee/group. Goal is to try to obtain reliable info about the performance of an employee. Object is the employee. more retrospective. Backward looking (what did you do last year? Giving appropriate sanctions and rewards)

Job-relevant strengths and weaknesses

• Assign ratings to each performance dimension

• Typically conducted annually

• Lacks ongoing feedback because it’s once a year

• It’s NOT a performance measurement and NOT job evaluation: Object of job evaluation: the job itself

• PA as a developmental and futuristic perspective

• As a social and communication process (2 parties - supervisor/employee. Must agree on performance. An exchange)

• As a political tool (sometimes judgement might not always be ratings)

• Shifts in thinking

  • Now seen as a rationalist, psychometric perspective. 

  • Viewed as a rational measurement process. This is partially because research for court cases like equal employment emphasized need for thorough assessment, the form requires substantial research (what and how Qs are asked)

  • Research on scaling formats

• PA as an information-processing perspective. 

  • May be seen as a complex memory task. It’s now shifted to emphasize cognitive processes where PA was now seen as a complex memory task (supervisor now has to encode PA info, then retrieve for a later date, wait and combine it with info into overall performance judgement)

  • emphasizes a top-down strategy where a handful of leaders making decisions

Performance Management

continuous process of identifying, measuring, and developing the performance of employees’ teams in congruence with organizational goals. Never ending process of setting goals, observing, giving feedback, individual development. PM creates direct link between employee performance and organizational performance

•  more prospective: Forward looking, using feedback as a tool to change future behavior. It’s an ongoing process of performance improvement. It’s more likely to emphasize informal feedback

• Emphasis on the role of the appraiser as that of a helper (coach) and not a judge 

• Emphasis on participative action plans that foster implementation

• Its main focus is on improving the employee’s effectiveness of contribution to the organization.

• built on a consultative strategy, emphasizes employee participation and engagement

Talent Management

Broader activity. Full journey of an employee through recruiting, training, upskilling, and promotions. Helps HR managers recruit, retrain, and upskill employees

Three Perspectives of Performance Management

• A system for managing organizational performance

  • Organization mission strategy

• A system for managing employee performance

  • Broader than PA

  • Forward-looking; backward-looking assessment; feedback-giving element; ongoing

• A system for integrating the management of organizational and employee performance

  • Alignment of individual performance goals with the organization goals

  • Integrating Performance Management with other HR processes and procedures

Motivation Theories

• Need Theory: need for achievement, affiliation, and power

• Expectancy Theory: Expectancy, Instrumentality, Valence

• Social Learning Theory: 

• Equity Theory: nature of what works that’s given and compensable outcomes, would accommodate employees that need accommodations with equipment for their needs and keep motivated

• Reinforcement Theory: what doesn’t get reinforced doesn’t get repeated and what doesn’t get repeated doesn’t get done

Agency Theory

examines organizational context and how that shifts performance mgmt practices. Could be how work is delegated or job title gives employees. This theory suggests that greater info sharing 

• explains the relationship and potential conflicts between principals (such as shareholders) who delegate work, and agents (such as managers) who perform it. reduce "agency loss," which occurs when agents act in their own self-interest rather than the principal's

Signaling Theory

suggests that people need tangible information to understand or interest or future prospects. Make inferences about what’s important to organizations and what behavior I should be demonstrating. Formal practices should have important signaling function so employees can sense what organizations expect and value which facilitates good behavior. Ex: organization/company wide Performance Management software. Signals organization is moving toward more structured, transparent and data driven approach would mean making it easier to keep track of job descriptions and keep track of what the employee can track and what they’re excelling at. Organizations should signal what they care about so employees know what they need to focus on.

Purposes of Performance Systems

1. Strategic- to help top management achieve strategic business objectives

2. Administrative: to furnish valid and useful information for making administrative decisions about employees. Most frequently used purpose

3. Informational: To inform employees about how they are doing and about the organization’s customers’, and supervisors’ expectations

4. Developmental: to allow managers and peers to provide coaching to their employees. Most frequently used.

5. Organizational Maintenance: to create a talent inventory and provide information to be used in workplace planning and allocation of HR

6. Documentation: To collect useful information that

Distal Context

• National Culture

• Legal Environment

• Economic Environment: recession, determines level of seriousness and breadth for PM system

• Technical Environment

• Physical Environment

Proximal context

• Organizational culture (most likely to affect PM system when focus on things like goal orientation, organization culture is goal oriented, classified as easy going culture, open system, determines who they set up PA-PM

• Organizational Strategy

• Work group composition

• Supervisor-subordinate relationships

Defamation

 info disclosed that’s untrue and unfavorable and inhibits employees to get another job or promotion. Untrue and Unfavorable

Misrepresentation

Disclosure of information that’s untrue and favorable likely lying. Ex: give good recommendation to employee you fired means you are misrepresenting, especially when company encounters damage or harm because of that individual. Future employee/consulting agencies/customers are the ones that sue and who are harmed as person is hired under false pretenses

Characteristics of Legally sound PA-PM Systems

Ensure content and procedures used to assess employee is legally sound

• Use objective, not subjective criteria

• Be job-related or based on job analysis

• Based on behaviors, not traits. Important: shouldn’t appraise on what they’re like. Don’t rate them because they’re a jerk, more of the things they’ve done

• Be within control of the ratee: don’t rate poorly on something our of their control like disabilities

• Relate to specific job functions (not be global). What we can do to minimize being sued is include blended approach with objective data and subjective ratings
  
  

Recommendations for legally sound PA procedures

• Standardize for all employees within a job group

• Should be formally communicated

• Use, multiple, unbiased raters

• Provide instructions for training raters

• Provide thorough documentation

• Allow employees to appeal results

• Should allow employees to correct deficiencies- give employees opportunity to improve before big decisions like promotion/demotion

Cascading Goals

Idea is to ensure that the next level has goals that align with the next hierarchy they are reporting to

FeedForward Interview

a strengths-based performance appraisal and development method that focuses on future goals and peak experiences instead of past mistakes or failures