Comprehensive Guide to Psychology: Evolution, Nervous System, and Neurotransmitters

Evolutionary psychology

the study of how psychological traits and behaviors have evolved over time to enhance survival and reproductive success

Natural selection

process by which organisms are better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing on those advantageous traits to future generations

Nature

inherent biological and genetic factors that influence an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors and cognitive abilities.

Nurture

the environmental influences and experiences that shape an individual's psychological development, traits, behaviors and cognitive abilities.

Twin studies

examines similarities and differences between identical and fraternal twins to assess the relative influence of genetics and environment on traits and behaviors

Adoption studies

investigates similarities and differences between adopted children and their biological and adoptive families to assess the impact of genetics versus environment on various traits and behaviors

Family studies

analyzes similarities and differences among family members, including parents and siblings, to understand the interplay of genetics and environment in shaping traits and behaviors within a family unit

Heredity

transmission of genetic information from parents to offspring

Genetic predispositions

the inherited likelihood of developing traits or conditions due to genetic factors from biological parents

Eugenics

the belief in improving the genetic ability of a human population by controlling reproduction to increase desirable traits and decrease undesirable traits

The nervous system

the body's communication network, consisting of a complex system of nerves, neurons, and specialized cells.

Central Nervous system

consists of the brain and spinal cord. Serves as the command center for the body, responsible for processing information, coordinating response and regulating bodily functions

Peripheral nervous system

consists of all the nerves and glands outside the brain and spinal cord

Autonomic system

division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary bodily function, operates automatically, without conscious control

Sympathetic nervous system

responsible for activating the body's 'fight or flight' response in times of stress or danger

Parasympathetic nervous system

responsible for promoting relaxation and restoring the body to a calm state after experiencing stress or danger

Somatic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system responsible for controlling voluntary movements and relaying sensory information from the body to the CNS

Neurons

specialized cell that serves as the building block of the nervous system, transmitting electrical and chemical signals throughout the body

Glial cells

the 'support cells' of the nervous system, provide structural support, insulation and nourishment to neurons

Reflex arc

neural pathway that controls reflex actions allowing for rapid, auto responses to stimuli without conscious thought.

Motor neurons

nerve cells that signal from the CNS to muscles, glands, organs, initiating and controlling voluntary movements.

Sensory neurons

Transmit sensory information from sensory receptors such as muscle and organs to CNS.

Interneurons

Nerve cells that serve as connectors within the CNS, relaying signals between sensory and motor neurons.

Neural transmission

The process by which neurons communicate with each other through electrical and chemical signals.

Threshold

The stimulation required to trigger an action potential in a neuron. It's the minimum amount of stimulation necessary to produce a response.

Action potential

Brief electrical impulse that travels among the axons of a neuron. All or nothing principal - once a neuron reaches its threshold of excitation, it will fire an action potential at full strength.

Depolarization

Phase of action potential where the inside of the neuron becomes less negative compared to the outside due to the influx of positively charged ions, such as sodium ions, through ion channels in the cell membrane.

Refractory period

Period following an action potential during which a neuron is unable to generate another action potential.

Resting potential

Stable negative electrical charge exists across the cell membrane of a neuron when it's not actively transmitting signals.

Reuptake

Process in which neurotransmitters that have been released into the synapse are reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron from which they were originally released.

Multiple sclerosis (MS)

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the CNS, including brain and spinal cord. Occurs when the immune system attacks the myelin sheath.

Myasthenia Gravis

Chronic autoimmune disease that affects the neuromuscular junction, where nerve impulses are transmitted to the muscles. Occurs when the immune system produces antibodies that block or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons, allowing for communication within the nervous system.

Excitatory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that increase the likelihood of an action potential.

Inhibitory Neurotransmitters

Chemicals released by neurons that decrease the likelihood of an action potential occurring in the postsynaptic neuron.

Glutamate

learning, memory, neuroplasticity

GABA

promotes relaxation and reduces anxiety

Dopamine

regulating mood, motivation, reward, and movement

Serotonin

regulating mood, sleep, and appetite

Endorphins

pain relief, euphoria

Substance P

transmits pain signals

Acetylcholine

muscle contraction, memory, and learning

Hormones

chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that travels through the bloodstream to target cells and organs

Ghrelin

"hunger hormone", stimulate appetite and promotes hunger

Leptin

regulates energy and appetite

Melatonin

regulate the sleep - wake cycles

Oxytocin

plays a key role in social bonding, "the love hormone"

Adrenaline

plays a key role in stress response, helps the body to adapt to challenging circumstances

Norepinephrine

regulates arousal, attention, and stress

Cerebral cortex

outer layer of brain, responsible for thinking, perceiving and decision making

Association areas

parts of the brain that take info from all over the place and put it all together to help us understand the world around us

Frontal lobe

involved in decision making, problem solving, planning, and personality expression

Prefrontal cortex

responsible for higher level functions and executive functioning

Executive functioning

processes that enable individuals to plan, organize, strategize, focus, attention, regulate emotions, and manage time effectively

Motor cortex

region responsible for controlling voluntary movements, allows us to walk, talk

Parietal lobes

responsible for processing sensory information from the body

Somatosensory cortex

responsible for processing sensations from the skin, muscles, and joints

Occipital lobe

responsible for processing visual information

Temporal lobe

involved in processing auditory info, language comprehension

Corpus callosum

connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain

Brainstem

responsible for sustaining functions such as breathing, heart rate, and sleep wake cycles

Medulla

regulates essential autonomic functions such as heart beat, breathing and blood pressure

Reticular activating system

regulates arousal, attention, and consciousness

Cerebellum

responsible for coordinating movement, balance and posture

Limbic system

involved in emotions, memory and motivation includes the thalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, and hypothalamus

Reward center

processes pleasurable experiences and reinforces behaviors associated with them

Thalamus

Relays sensory info such as sight, sound, touch, and taste to the cerebral cortex.

Hypothalamus

Regulates hunger, thirst, body temp, and sleep wake cycle.

Pituitary gland

Referred to as 'master gland', plays a role in coordinating hormonal activity and maintaining homeostasis.

Hippocampus

Responsible for forming and consolidating memories.

Amygdala

Plays a central role in brain's threat detection, processes emotions particularly fear and aggression.

Plasticity

Refers to the brain's ability to reorganize and adapt throughout life in response to experiences, learning, and environmental changes.

Split brain research

Primarily done as a treatment for epilepsy.

Contralateral hemispheric organization

Each hemisphere of the brain controls opposite sides of the body.

Hemispheric specialization

Each hemisphere has specialized functions and abilities.

Linguistic processing

Involved in understanding and producing language.

Broca's area

Responsible for speech production and language processing.

Broca's aphasia

Results from stroke or brain injury, people with this have difficulty forming grammatically correct sentences, speech may be slow.

Wernicke's area

Region responsible for comprehension and understanding spoken and written language.

Wernicke's aphasia

People exhibit fluent speech but have difficulty understanding spoken and written language.

EEG

Shows electrical activity of the brain, involves placing electrodes on the scalp to detect electrical activity of the brain.

fMRI

Provides detailed images of brain's structure and function, allows researchers to identify which areas of the brain are active during specific tasks or stimuli.

Lesioning

Research technique to study brain by intentionally damaging or destroying specific areas of the brain in experimental animals.