Comprehensive Psychology and Aging: Relationships, Stress, and Cognitive Changes

Common characteristics of adults who remain single by choice

Often independent, career-focused, value personal freedom, have strong social networks, pursue personal growth, and may prefer singlehood after past relationships.

Reasons adults choose to stay single

Desire autonomy and personal development; negative past relationships or divorce; focus on career, education, or travel; lack of interest in traditional romantic commitment.

Perceived advantages of staying single

Freedom to make decisions without compromise, less financial strain or household conflict, more time for hobbies and friendships, and avoidance of emotional risks in romantic relationships.

Changes in cohabitation trends

It is more common and accepted, especially among young adults; seen as a step before marriage, a way to test compatibility, or an alternative to marriage.

Reasons couples choose to cohabitate

To test the relationship before marriage, for financial practicality, belief that marriage isn't necessary, convenience, and spending more time together.

Comparison of cohabitating relationships to marriages

Generally less stable and less committed than marriages; but long-term cohabitation with shared goals can yield similar satisfaction.

Benefits of marriage

Emotional support and companionship, better physical and mental health, financial benefits, and social approval/support.

Challenges couples face when transitioning to marriage

Adjusting roles and routines, managing finances and chores, communication and conflict resolution, balancing independence with partnership.

Factors predicting marital success

Good communication, emotional intimacy, mutual respect/trust, marrying later (mid-20s+), higher education, supportive social networks, and premarital cohabitation with intent to marry.

Short-term consequences of divorce

Emotional distress, financial strain, changes in daily routines and family roles, effects on children if custody is involved.

Long-term consequences of divorce

Improved well-being if marriage was conflictual, remarriage potential, ongoing financial challenges (especially for women), emotional growth.

Gender differences in divorce effects

Women face more financial hardship but greater emotional growth and social support; men face more social isolation and emotional adjustment difficulties.

Transition to parenthood and gender roles

Traditional gender roles often re-emerge, with mothers doing more childcare and housework; this can cause resentment and increased conflict.

Parenthood's impact on couple conflict and relationship satisfaction

Sleep deprivation, financial stress, and parenting style differences increase conflict; couple satisfaction often declines early in parenting.

Wear-and-Tear Theory of aging

The body gradually wears down due to use, stress, and toxins, but repair mechanisms make this theory incomplete.

Cellular Mutation Theories in aging

Aging results from genetic damage like DNA errors and telomere shortening, which limit cell replication.

Free Radical Theory

Free radicals cause oxidative damage to cells and DNA, contributing to aging and disease.

Programmed Aging Theory

Aging is biologically programmed into our genes, with a 'biological clock' regulating lifespan.

Presbyopia

Vision changes that occur in middle adulthood.

Presbycusis

Hearing loss that occurs in middle adulthood.

Perimenopause

Irregular periods and hot flashes experienced by middle-aged women.

Menopause

End of menstruation occurring around age 51 in women.

Cardiovascular disease

Leading cause of death in middle adulthood, including heart attacks and stroke.

Hardiness

A personality trait involving commitment, control, and viewing stress as a challenge that protects health.

Crystallized intelligence

Knowledge and skills gained from experience, like vocabulary or general facts; tends to stay stable or increase with age.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to solve new problems quickly without prior knowledge, like solving puzzles; peaks in early adulthood and declines after.

Divided attention

A type of attention that declines in middle adulthood.

Selective attention

A type of attention that declines in middle adulthood.

Working memory

A type of memory that declines somewhat in middle adulthood.

Episodic memory

A type of memory that declines somewhat in middle adulthood.

Semantic memory

A type of memory that remains stable or improves in middle adulthood.

Processing speed

Slows down gradually in middle adulthood, affecting how quickly people process information.

Emotional intimacy

Women's friendships in middle adulthood are characterized by more emotional intimacy and self-disclosure.

Shared activities

Men's friendships center on shared activities, though emotional depth increases with age.

Marital satisfaction

Follows a U-shaped curve: high early on, dips during child-rearing, rises again in later adulthood.

Characteristics of higher marital satisfaction

Good communication, conflict resolution, mutual respect, shared values, emotional intimacy, humor, and flexibility.

Effects of divorce on individuals

Causes stress, grief, identity shifts, financial strain, and mental health challenges but can also lead to personal growth.

Impact of divorce on family systems

Changes parenting roles, custody, family traditions; children may have emotional and behavioral challenges but often adjust over time.

Divorce effects on men and women

Women face more financial hardship and caregiving; men experience social isolation and emotional adjustment difficulties.

Parenting roles of middle-aged adults

Raising young children, supporting adult children, caring for aging parents, becoming grandparents or guardians.

Care provided to aging parents

Medical help, transportation, finances, emotional support, and daily assistance.

Benefits of parenting adult children

Ongoing connection and pride.

Challenges of parenting adult children

Financial strain, delayed independence, boundary setting.

Benefits of parenting young children

More patience, emotional maturity, financial stability.

Challenges of parenting young children

Lower energy, balancing work and caregiving, sandwich generation stress.

Roles of grandparents

Caregivers, supporters, mentors, storytellers, companions; improve grandchildren's social-emotional development and family cohesion.

Ageism

Prejudice or discrimination based on age, often against older adults, involving negative stereotypes like frailty or cognitive decline.

Examples of ageism

Workplace discrimination, social exclusion, and stereotypical media portrayals of older adults as helpless.

Harmful effects of ageism

Leads to depression, low self-esteem, social isolation, poorer health, and reduced opportunities.

Appearance changes in late adulthood

Thinner, less elastic skin with wrinkles and age spots; gray, thinning hair; loss of muscle mass; increased body fat; height loss; stooped posture.

Sensory changes in older adults

Vision problems (presbyopia, cataracts), hearing loss (presbycusis), reduced taste and smell.

Impact of physical changes on older adults

Reduced muscle strength, bone density loss, joint stiffness, decreased mobility, and increased frailty.

Impacts of sensory and physical changes

Reduced social interaction, higher accident risk, loss of independence, need for assistance.

Common injuries in older adults

Falls (leading to fractures), broken bones, burns, cuts, and motor vehicle accidents.

Risk factors for injuries in older adults

Physical frailty, chronic health conditions, and environmental hazards.

Protective factors against injury

Exercise, assistive devices (hearing aids, walkers), and environmental modifications (grab bars, improved lighting).

Phases of Alzheimer's disease

Early stage (mild memory loss), middle stage (confusion, recognition problems), late stage (severe memory loss, full care needed).

Earliest symptoms of Alzheimer's

Forgetting recent events, difficulty planning or organizing.

When 24-hour care is required for Alzheimer's

In the late stage, when independent functioning is lost.

Relationship between Alzheimer's and dementia

Alzheimer's is the most common cause of dementia, which is a broad term for severe cognitive decline.

Changes in attention and working memory in late adulthood

Divided and shifting attention decline; working memory decreases, affecting problem-solving and multitasking.

Impact of cognitive changes on multitasking

Older adults multitask less effectively, with slower responses and more errors.

Minimizing multitasking challenges

Focus on one task at a time, engage in cognitive training, and use reminders or calendars.

Factors influencing cognitive change in late adulthood

Genetics, health conditions (hypertension, diabetes), physical activity, nutrition, social engagement, mental stimulation.

Openness

It tends to decline; older adults may prefer routine over new experiences.

Conscientiousness

It increases or remains stable; older adults focus on responsibility and goals.

Agreeableness

Agreeableness increases (more empathy, cooperation).

Neuroticism

Neuroticism decreases (more emotional stability).

Big Five traits

Higher Agreeableness and Conscientiousness relate to better life satisfaction and health; lower Neuroticism relates to less stress.

Religiosity in late adulthood

Spiritual practices (prayer, meditation), community involvement, and stronger emphasis on faith.

Benefits of religious involvement for older adults

Social support, sense of purpose, emotional well-being, and better physical health.

Factors influencing retirement decision

Health status, financial security, job satisfaction, and family caregiving responsibilities.

Transition to retirement

Typically begins several years before the actual retirement date, with planning and adjustment.

Factors easing adjustment to retirement

Financial stability, good health, strong social networks, and a flexible identity.

Difficulties in retirement adjustment

Loss of work identity, boredom, or lack of purpose.

Biological death

Cessation of bodily functions, including heart and respiratory function.

Neurological (brain) death

Irreversible loss of all brain activity, including the brainstem.

Legal death

Formal declaration of death based on medical/legal criteria, leading to a death certificate.

Universality in understanding death

The idea that all living beings eventually die.

Irreversibility in understanding death

Death is permanent and cannot be reversed.

Non-functionality in death understanding

Death means all biological functions have stopped.

Causality in understanding death

Death is caused by factors like disease, accident, or aging.

Cardiovascular changes during dying

Slowing heart rate, low blood pressure, and eventual heart stoppage.

Respiratory system changes during dying

Breathing becomes irregular, with periods of no breathing before stopping.

Kidney function during dying

Kidney function declines, leading to fluid retention and reduced urine output.

Nervous system response during dying

Reduced responsiveness, confusion, delirium, and eventually loss of consciousness.

Denial in Kubler-Ross's stages

Refusing to accept the reality of death or loss.

Anger in the five stages

Feeling resentment or frustration about the death or situation.

Bargaining

Trying to make deals with a higher power to delay or prevent death.

Depression in the stages

Sadness and hopelessness as the reality sinks in.

Acceptance

Coming to peace with death and preparing for it.

Relationship closeness influence on grief

Closer emotional bonds usually lead to more intense grief.

Most difficult task in grieving

Adjusting to life without the deceased and rebuilding identity.

Finding balance in grief

By remembering the deceased while moving forward in life.

Understanding death in children under 5

Limited understanding; may show grief through behavior changes.

Understanding death in school-age children (6-12)

Recognize death's finality but may feel guilt or confusion.

Adolescents experience grief

Intense emotions, isolation, and difficulty expressing feelings; peer support is important but complex.

Easing grief in children and adolescents

Caregiver support, open communication, and emotional expression opportunities.