U.S. Constitution Origins: Key Figures, Compromises, and Federal Principles

Philadelphia Convention

Originally called to revise the Articles of Confederation but ended up creating a new Constitution.

George Washington

Presided over the Philadelphia Convention, giving the meeting credibility.

Secret Sessions

Kept to allow honest debate and compromise without public or political pressure.

Key Delegates

Washington (leader), Madison ("Father of the Constitution"), Hamilton (strong central gov.), Franklin (mediator).

Absent Major Figures

Jefferson, John Adams, Patrick Henry — their absence meant fewer Anti-Federalist voices.

Main Conflict at the Convention

Representation in Congress — population vs. equality.

Virginia Plan

Proposed a bicameral Congress with representation based on population (favored large states).

New Jersey Plan

Proposed a unicameral Congress with equal representation (favored small states).

Great Compromise

Created a bicameral legislature — House by population, Senate equal per state.

Three-Fifths Compromise

Counted enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for representation and taxes.

Support for Three-Fifths Compromise

The South supported it as it increased their representation without equally raising taxes.

Commerce and Slave Trade Compromises

Allowed Congress to tax imports (not exports) and end the slave trade in 1807.

Fear of Mob Rule

Shays' Rebellion showed the dangers of too much democracy and instability.

Separation of Powers

Prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful through checks and balances.

Senators' Original Selection

Originally chosen by state legislatures to keep a layer between public opinion and government.

Electoral College

Created to balance popular influence with state control in presidential elections.

Supreme Court Justices' Terms

Serve for life to ensure independence from politics.

Federal vs. Confederal System

Federal divides power between state and national governments; confederal keeps it mostly in the states.

Ratification Process

Used special state conventions (9 of 13 states needed).

Bypassing State Legislatures

Done in ratification to prevent legislators from opposing it to protect their own power.

Leading Federalists

Hamilton, Madison, Jay — supported a strong central government.

Key Anti-Federalists

Patrick Henry, Sam Adams — feared loss of liberty and wanted a Bill of Rights.

The Federalist Papers

Essays by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay defending the Constitution and explaining checks and balances.

Compromise for ratification

Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights.

Purpose of the Bill of Rights

To protect individual freedoms and satisfy Anti-Federalist concerns.

Importance of Washington's actions as president

They set precedents (two terms, Cabinet, neutrality).

Washington's inauguration

April 1789, in New York City.

Washington's vice president and top advisors

John Adams (VP); Jefferson (State), Hamilton (Treasury), Knox (War), Randolph (Attorney General).

Judiciary Act of 1789

Established the federal court system — Supreme, Circuit, and District Courts.

Problems faced by the new government

Debt, no capital, no court system, no precedents.

Goals of Hamilton's economic plan

Strengthen national credit, assume state debts, create a stable currency, and build trust in the new government.

Purpose of the assumption plan

Federal government took on state debts to unite the country financially.

Southern states' opposition to assumption

They had already paid off debts and didn't want to fund the North's.

Capital-location compromise

South accepted assumption in exchange for the capital in Washington, D.C.

Hamilton's support for tariffs and excise taxes

To raise revenue and assert federal power.

Purpose of the Bank of the United States

To manage national funds, issue currency, and stabilize the economy.

Jefferson's opposition to the Bank

He believed it was unconstitutional (strict interpretation).

Hamilton's defense of the Bank's constitutionality

The Elastic (Necessary and Proper) Clause — implied powers.

Cause of the Whiskey Rebellion

Farmers protested the whiskey tax; Washington led troops to stop it, proving federal authority.

Cause of the Proclamation of Neutrality (1793)

France and Britain went to war; Washington wanted to keep the U.S. out of foreign conflicts.

Federalists vs. Democratic-Republicans on the French Revolution

Federalists opposed it as violent; Jeffersonians supported it as a fight for liberty.

Problems leading to Jay's Treaty (1794)

British forts in the West and seizure of U.S. ships.

Results of Jay's Treaty

Britain left western forts and improved trade but didn't stop seizing ships — unpopular at home.

Precedent set by the Whiskey Rebellion and Jay's Treaty

The federal government could enforce laws and pursue diplomacy without war.

Emergence of political factions

Federalists (Hamilton) and Democratic-Republicans (Jefferson) — split over Hamilton's plan, foreign policy, and interpretation of the Constitution.

Loose vs Strict

(Hamilton/Federalists) - Loose interpretation of the constitution, (Jefferson) - strict inerpretation

Promotion of Republican Motherhood

Women's role in raising virtuous, civic-minded citizens.

Washington's precedent by retiring after two terms

Peaceful transfer of power and limit on executive authority.