Respiration Circulation Osmoregulation Excretion, Animal Reproduction, Animal Development

Blood

Fluid medium for transport in multicellular animals.

Plasma

Liquid component of blood, 55% of total volume.

Erythrocytes

Red blood cells that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Leukocytes

White blood cells involved in defense and immunity.

Platelets

Cytoplasmic fragments that initiate blood clotting.

Plasma Proteins

Proteins in plasma for osmotic balance and clotting.

Albumin

Plasma protein for osmotic balance and pH buffering.

Fibrinogen

Plasma protein that converts to fibrin during clotting.

Immunoglobulins

Antibodies produced by lymphocytes for immune response.

Osmotic Balance

Regulation of fluid balance in blood and tissues.

Open Circulatory System

Blood is extracellular fluid, low pressure, no O2 transport.

Closed Circulatory System

Blood contained in vessels, high pressure, efficient O2 transport.

Single Circuit Circulation

Fish circulatory system with one circuit through gills.

Two-Chamber Heart

Heart structure in fish for gill and systemic circulation.

Three-Chambered Heart

Heart structure in amphibians and non-avian reptiles.

Pulmonary Circuit

Pathway for blood to and from the lungs.

Systemic Circuit

Pathway for blood to and from the body.

Capillaries

Tiny blood vessels for nutrient and gas exchange.

Hemolymph

Extracellular fluid in open circulatory systems.

Clotting Factors

Substances involved in the blood clotting process.

Biconcave Shape

Shape of mammal erythrocytes for increased surface area.

Bone Marrow

Tissue where erythrocytes and platelets are produced.

Double circulation

Blood circulates through two separate circuits.

Single circulation

Blood passes through the heart once per cycle.

Pulmonary circuit

Carries oxygen-poor blood to lungs for oxygenation.

Systemic circuit

Delivers oxygen-rich blood to body tissues.

Pulmocutaneous circuit

Combines pulmonary and skin respiration in amphibians.

Gill capillaries

Site of gas exchange in fish gills.

Lung capillaries

Site of gas exchange in mammalian lungs.

Oxygen-rich blood

Blood high in oxygen, delivered to tissues.

Oxygen-poor blood

Blood low in oxygen, returns to heart.

Atria

Upper heart chambers that receive blood.

Ventricles

Lower heart chambers that pump blood out.

Semilunar valves

Prevent backflow into ventricles after contraction.

Atrioventricular valves

Control blood flow between atria and ventricles.

Heart muscle contraction

Systole; relaxation is called diastole.

Heart rate in endotherms

Faster than in ectotherms; varies by size.

Arteries

Thick-walled vessels carrying blood away from heart.

Veins

Thinner-walled vessels returning blood to heart.

Capillaries

Microscopic vessels for nutrient and gas exchange.

Arteriosclerosis

Thickening and loss of elasticity in arteries.

Precapillary sphincters

Regulate blood flow into capillary beds.

Blood pressure

Force exerted by circulating blood on vessel walls.

Net fluid movement

Fluid movement from capillaries to interstitial space.

Capillary density

Can exceed one million per square inch in muscle.

Net fluid movement

Flow of fluid in blood vessels.

Hyperosmotic blood

Blood with high concentration of solutes.

Osmotic pressure

Pressure required to prevent water movement.

Alveoli

Tiny air sacs for gas exchange in lungs.

Hemoglobin

Protein that carries oxygen in red blood cells.

O2 saturation

Percentage of hemoglobin bound to oxygen.

PO2

Partial pressure of oxygen in the environment.

Bicarbonate (HCO3-)

Stable form of carbon dioxide in plasma.

Osmoregulation

Regulation of solute concentrations and water balance.

Osmosis

Movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

Osmotic conformers

Organisms that match body fluid osmotic pressure to environment.

Oxygen unloading

Release of oxygen from hemoglobin to tissues.

Diaphragm

Muscle that aids in breathing by changing lung volume.

Bronchioles

Small air passages leading to alveoli.

Carbonic acid (H2CO3)

Formed from CO2 and water in blood.

pH impact on hemoglobin

Lower pH reduces hemoglobin's oxygen carrying capacity.

CO2 transport

Movement of carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.

Pulmonary artery

Carries oxygen-poor blood to lungs.

Pulmonary vein

Carries oxygen-rich blood from lungs.

Capillary wall

Thin barrier for gas and solute exchange.

Homeostasis

Maintenance of stable internal conditions in organisms.

Hyperosmotic environment

Higher solute concentration than body fluids.

Hypoosmotic environment

Lower solute concentration than body fluids.

Osmoregulation

Regulation of water and solute balance.

Excretion of salt ions

Removal of excess salts via gills.

Osmotic water loss

Loss of water through gills and skin.

Osmotic water gain

Absorption of water through gills and skin.

Dilute urine

Urine with low solute concentration.

Concentrated urine

Urine with high solute concentration.

Anhydrobiosis

Dormant state with minimal water.

Water balance in humans

Average intake of 2,500 mL/day.

Water balance in kangaroo rat

Average intake of 2 mL/day.

Nitrogenous wastes

Toxic byproducts of protein metabolism.

Ammonia

Primary nitrogenous waste, highly toxic.

Urea

Less toxic waste, concentrated in tissues.

Uric acid

Least toxic nitrogenous waste, excreted solid.

Kidney function

Regulates fluid volume and composition.

Nephron

Basic functional unit of the kidney.

Glomerulus

Filtering unit of the nephron.

Filtration

Process of removing waste from blood.

Reabsorption

Process of reclaiming water and nutrients.

Secretion

Process of adding substances to filtrate.

Osmolarity

Concentration of solutes in a solution.

Renal cortex

Outer region of the kidney.

Renal medulla

Inner region of the kidney.

Sexual Reproduction

Creation of offspring via male and female gametes.

Asexual Reproduction

Offspring creation without gene combination from parents.

Fission

Separation of parent into two or more individuals.

Budding

New individuals arise from outgrowths of existing ones.

Fragmentation

Body breaks into pieces, developing into adults.

Parthenogenesis

Development from an unfertilized egg, asexual reproduction.

Aspidoscelis Whiptail Lizards

15 species exhibit parthenogenesis from hybridization.

Twofold Cost of Sexual Reproduction

Sexual lineages have fewer reproducers than asexual lineages.

Genetic Recombination

Mixing of genes leading to diverse offspring.

Survival Advantage

Increased survival likelihood in variable environments.