race relations final

wealth inequality by race (black americans)

median wealth (2016)

white families: 171,000

black families 17,000

The wealth gap between white and black families increased between 1983-2016

Racial inequality in part rests on wealth differentials between white and black families

criminal justice system

The U.S has the highest incarceration rates by country

The black imprisonment rate in the US has fallen by a third since 2006, but remains disproportionately high compared to other racial groups.

The gap between the number of blacks and whites in prison is shrinking (2019)

2018: There were 1,501 Black
prisoners for every 100,000 Black
adults – more than five times the
imprisonment rate for whites (268 per
100,000) and nearly double the rate for
Hispanics

Black Americans represented 33% of
the sentenced prison population

criminal justice system (2)

“ War on drugs”- dramatic increase of convictions for nonviolent drug offenses

the majority of illegal drug users and dealers nationwide are white, but 75% of those imprisoned for drug offenses are black/latinx Americans

drug trafficking occurs everywhere but police disproportionally target urban low income minority neighborhoods

mass incarceration is rationalized by “color blind” rhetoric, serving as a new form of racial control (effects of being labeled a felon”

push-pull factors

forces that encourage migration from one
place to another

“push”-discouragement of remaining in the
country of origin

pull”-inducements to seek a better life
elsewhere

bracero program

Temporary visa program

Implemented to supply agricultural labor

Mexican agricultural workers entered the U.S on temporary visas and then returned after the harvest

4.6 million contracts signed

Chicano power

Cesar Chavez

United Farm workers movement advocating for the rights and empowerment of Mexican Americans, focusing on labor rights and social justice.

Advocacy for better wages and working conditions for migrants laborers

Puerto Ricans characteristics

higher poverty relative to other Latinx subgroups

1946-1964- greatest migration period to the US

shuttle migration

Cubans characteristics

4th largest Hispanic subgroup

immigration since 1960

1960s: Cuban Revolution, “ a displaced bourgeoisie”

1980s: working and lower class

positive SES indicators

assimilation issues

high rates of intermarriage with non-hispanics (except for Puetro Ricans and Dominicans)

rapid loss of Spanish among the second and third generations

continuous flow of newcomers from Latin America keeps U.S born Hispanics connected with immigrant sending countries

the Latino Paradox

Hispanic Americans have lower SES compared to Americans but they have better health than Americans

sojourners

a person who resides temporarily in a place, often a traveler or stranger dwelling in a place for a while

the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882-1943)

the first human embargo by the US government toward a particular ‘race” of immigrants

Japanese American incarceration during WWII

nearly 120,000 were imprisoned in 10 internment camps (mostly US citizens)

for “national security”- despite evidence of loyalty to the US among Japanese Americans

racial justification

response to public and political pressures

The Yellow Peril

stereotype against Chinese immigrants as seen as not assimilating

the policital or military threat regarded as being posed by the Chinese Americans

Koreans characteristics

large scale Korean immigration began after the end of Korean War; peaked in the 1980s

one of the highest self-employment rates of all
ethnic/racial groups

importance of human, economic & social capital

Vietnamese characteristics

involuntary immigration (after the end of the
Vietnam War) - refugees

compared to other Asian groups:

• lower SES

• higher poverty and unemployment rates

adjustment problems--government policy of
scattering the refugees throughout the U.S.

refugee

a person who is unable or unwilling to return to their country of nationality because of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group, or political opinion

model minority stereotype

minority groups that have apparently achieved a high level of success in comptemporary American society

pins racial groups against each other

Los Angeles riots of 1992

multiracial riots

Korean merchants as a middleman minority

the height if bias motivated hate crimes against Asian/Pacific Islanders

looking glass self

3 elements:

• We imagine how we appear to other people

• We imagine how other people judge the appearance that we think we present

• If our evaluation is favorable, our self-concept is enhanced

• If our evaluation is unfavorable, our self-concept is diminished

Describe the characteristics of new Hispanic, non-Hispanic Caribbean, Asian, and African immigrant groups; Arab and Middle Eastern immigration (history and present); and immigration issues including American attitudes and societal impacts.

• Early 20th-century arrivals were mainly Christian from Lebanon and Syria.

• Present: Post-1965 immigrants include Muslims from broader regions; issues with profiling post-9/11.

• American Attitudes: Mixed—supportive of hard-working immigrants but concerned about cultural change and job competition.

• Societal Impacts: Economic contributions, cultural diversity, but also challenges with integration, xenophobia, and policy debates.

What key sociological concepts and theories explain dominant-minority relationships in American society, and why are sociological perspectives important for understanding these dynamics?

• Views racial/ethnic inequality as a way society maintains stability (e.g., by assigning roles), but critics say it overlooks injustice.

• Conflict Theory: Emphasizes power struggles—dominant groups maintain privilege by oppressing minorities (e.g., through institutional racism).

• Sociological views analyze structures, institutions, and group dynamics, not just personal prejudice or bias.

• Individual-level explanations (e.g., “bad apples”) miss systemic patterns like segregation, educational disparities, or employment gaps.

• They reveal how racism and inequality are embedded in laws, institutions, and norms, not just individual acts.

• Help explain why inequality persists despite legal and social progress.

double consciousness

This sense of always looking at oneself through
the eyes of others”- Du Bois

Being Black and American at the same time –
“unreconciled” striving; a contradictory experience

Dual and conflicting identities of African Americans

Blackness is constructed through the eyes of white America

Naturalization law of 1790

eligibility to naturalize granted for white European immigrant

Fourteenth Amendment (1868)

citizenship for all persons burn in the US regardless of race

Naturalization Act of 1870

eligibility to naturalize to persons of African descent (Chinese and Indigenous people excluded)

McCarran- Walter Act (1952)

end of racial requirements to naturalization; nonwhite immigrants become eligible US citizenship

Alien land law (1913)

restriction of acquisition of land by Asian immigrant groups ( on condition of US citizenship as a requirement

Immigration Act of 1917

literary tests

also called Asiatic Barred Zone Act- stopped immigration from a large part of Asia-Pacific

Immigration Act of 1924 (Johnson-Reed Act)

stopped immigration from Asia and Europe by setting quotas based on national origin

Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965 (Hart-Celler Act)

Removed national origin quotas

provisions to favor:

• professional immigrants

• family reunification

resulted in massive growth and diversification of immigrant-origin populations

Asian and Hispanic/Latinx immigration/demographic data trends

Hispanic/Latinx Trends:

• Largest minority group in the U.S.

• Major countries of origin: Mexico, Puerto Rico, Cuba, El Salvador, Dominican Republic.

• Growth is driven by both immigration and higher birth rates.

• Settlements are expanding beyond traditional states (e.g., growing in the South and Midwest).

• Issues: labor rights, legal status, education, and political participation.

Asian Trends:

• Fastest-growing racial group in the U.S.

• Major countries of origin: China, India, Philippines, Vietnam, Korea.

• Higher levels of education and median income on average, but large variation among subgroups.

• Shift from primarily labor migration to skilled and professional immigration.

• Faced both the "model minority" myth and anti-Asian discrimination (especially post-COVID).

contemporary immigration

• Shift from European-dominated immigration to global origins post-1965.

• More family-based and high-skilled visa immigration.

• Rise in undocumented immigration, particularly from Latin America and Asia.

• Debates over border security and undocumented immigration.

• Political polarization around immigration policy.

• Impacts on labor markets, public services, and cultural integration.

• Ongoing discussions about DACA, DREAMers, and comprehensive immigration reform.

intermarriage

Anti-miscegenation laws prohibited marriage
between racial minority members and whites

Illegal in 16 states until 1967 (Loving v. Virginia)

Increasing interracial marriage indicates the loosening of racial boundaries

The rate of intermarriage, however, differs by group

25% + of Asians and Hispanics are married to a spouse of a different race

Intermarriage rates are higher among newlyweds

Historically and today, Black and white Americans are the 2 groups least likely to intermarry with each other, though their intermarriage is also increasing

multiracial americans

a fast-growing segment of the US population

2000: 2.4% (6.8 mil.) reported being “multiracial”

2010: 9 mil

2020: 33.8

Projected multiracial persons by 2050: 1 in 5 Americans

• 35% of Asians and 45% of Hispanics will possibly claim a multiracial background by 2050

The Likely Persistance of a White Majority

Whites will likely remain a majority in the US in the 21st century according to Alba because

• The way the current census classifies mixed-race people

• Blurring of the racial boundary

• “whiteness” is malleable

The mainstream in itself is not absolute—it is transformed, and expanding through the
process of immigrant/minority assimilation

Lives in Limbo - Gonzalez

Undocumented young adults (who came to the U.S.
as minors accompanying parents without authorization

• Many thrive in school but hit legal and social barriers after graduation.

• Lack of legal status prevents access to higher education, employment, and stable futures.

• Gonzales introduces the idea of a "transition to illegality"—a shift from protected childhood to marginalized adulthood.

• DACA provided temporary relief but not permanent security or equality.

Intermarriage in the US - Livingston and Brown

• Intermarriage in the U.S. has steadily increased: 1 in 6 new marriages in 2015 were between spouses of different races or ethnicities.

• Asian (29%) and Hispanic (27%) newlyweds have the highest rates of intermarriage.

• Black newlyweds intermarry less (18%), but the rate is growing, especially among Black men.

• Attitudes toward intermarriage have become significantly more accepting across racial groups.

Ethnic and Racial Identities of Second generation Black immigrants in New York City - Waters

• Many second-generation youth feel pressure to adopt a Black American identity due to external racial classification.

• Differences emerge between those who embrace their ethnic heritage (e.g., Jamaican, Haitian) and those who assimilate into a broader African American identity.

• School context, peer groups, and neighborhood demographics significantly influence identity choices.

• Those who maintain strong ethnic ties may experience more academic success and social mobility.

• Racial discrimination pushes many second-generation youth to identify with African Americans, regardless of personal or family background.

Yellow - Wu

Asian Americans occupy a "racial middle" in U.S. society—neither Black nor White—and face unique racial challenges often overlooked in binary racial conversations.

• Perpetual Foreigner Stereotype: Asian Americans are often seen as outsiders, regardless of how long their families have lived in the U.S.

• Model Minority Myth: While seemingly positive, this stereotype masks real struggles and is used to undermine other racial minorities.

• Double Bind: Asian Americans are penalized both for assimilating too much and for holding onto cultural identity.

• Invisibility and Erasure: Asian Americans are often excluded from discussions on race and civil rights, limiting public understanding of their experiences.

Best of Friends, Worlds Apart - Ojito

The article follows two Cuban immigrants—Alex and Jorge—who both fled Cuba but ended up with drastically different life outcomes in the U.S. due to differences in race and the contexts of their arrival

Jorge, who is Black, faces more barriers and discrimination than Alex, who is white. Their friendship strains under the weight of these racial differences.

• Alex arrives during the Mariel boatlift and finds smoother integration; Jorge struggles under a different policy and socioeconomic conditions.

• The piece highlights how systemic racism and immigration policy intersect to shape immigrant lives differently, even when starting from similar origins.

Of Our Spiritual Strivings - Du Bois

Symbolizes the racial divide and the barrier to true understanding and equality. Black Americans live "behind the veil"—separated from full participation in American society.

Race: The Power of an Illusion. The House We live in

Federal policies like the G.I. Bill and redlining helped white families build wealth while excluding people of color, especially Black Americans, from home ownership and upward mobility.

The Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) and banks marked neighborhoods with Black residents as risky, denying loans and devaluing homes—a process that institutionalized segregation